Ageism - Wikipedia

Ageism, also spelled agism, is stereotyping and/or discrimination against individuals or groups on the basis of their age. This may be casual or systemic. Ageism FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Stereotypingordiscriminationduetoage LookupAgeisminWiktionary,thefreedictionary. 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Speciesism Stereotype threat Thetalk Whiteprivilege Woke vte RobertN.Butlercoinedtheterm"ageism"in1969 Ageism,alsospelledagism,isstereotypingand/ordiscriminationagainstindividualsorgroupsonthebasisoftheirage.Thismaybecasualorsystemic.[1][2]Thetermwascoinedin1969byRobertNeilButlertodescribediscriminationagainstseniors,andpatternedonsexismandracism.[3]Butlerdefined"ageism"asacombinationofthreeconnectedelements.Originallyitwasidentifiedchieflytowardsolderpeople,oldage,andtheagingprocess;discriminatorypracticesagainstolderpeople;andinstitutionalpracticesandpoliciesthatperpetuatestereotypesaboutelderlypeople.[4][5] Theterm"ageism"hasalsobeenusedtodescribetheoppressionofyoungerpeoplebyolderpeople,forexampleina1976pamphletpublishedbyYouthLiberationofAnnArbor,MI.[6]IntheUK,CouncillorRichardThomasatameetingofBracknellForestCouncil(March1983),pointedoutthatagediscriminationworksagainstyoungeraswellasolderpeople.[citationneeded]Ithasmuchlater(February2021)beenusedinregardstoprejudiceanddiscriminationagainstespeciallyadolescentsandchildren,suchasdenyingthemcertainrightsandprivilegesusuallyreservedforadultssuchastherighttovote,runforpoliticaloffice,buyandusealcohol,tobacco,orcannabis,marry,ownagun,gamble,consentorrefusemedicaltreatment,signcontracts,andsoforth.[7]Thiscanalsoincludeignoringtheirideasbecausetheyareconsidered"tooyoung",orassumingthattheyshouldbehaveincertainwaysbecauseoftheirage.Ageismagainsttheyoungalsoincludespenalties,burdens,orrequirementsimposedexclusivelyortoagreaterdegreeonyoungpeoplethanonolderpeople,suchasage-basedmilitaryconscription.[8]Inayouth-orientedsociety,however,olderpeoplebearthebruntofagebiasanddiscrimination.Olderpeoplethemselvescanbedeeplyageist,havinginternalizedalifetimeofnegativestereotypesaboutaging.[9]Ageismisoftenattributedtofearsofdeathanddisability,withavoiding,segregating,andrejectingolderpeopleservingascopingmechanismsthatallowpeopletoavoidthinkingabouttheirownmortality.[10]Stigmaanddiscriminationaroundthelossofphysicalormentalcapacityisactuallyableism,notageism,andagingislifelong.Likeotherformsofbias,ageismisnotbasedinbiologybutsociallyconstructed. Contents 1Classification 1.1Distinctionfromotherage-relatedbias 1.2Implicitageism 1.3Stereotyping 1.4Prejudice 1.5Digitalageism 1.6Ageisminstatistics 1.7Visualageism 2Discrimination 2.1Employment 2.2Hollywood 2.3Healthcare 3Effectsofageism 3.1CatholicChurch 3.2COVID-19pandemic 3.3Africa 3.3.1Nigeria 3.4America 3.4.1Canada 3.4.2Colombia 3.4.3UnitedStates 3.5AsiaandOceania 3.5.1Australia 3.5.2Philippines 3.6Europe 3.6.1EuropeanUnion 3.6.2Germany 3.6.3France 3.6.4Belgium 3.6.5Sweden 3.6.6UnitedKingdom 4Advocacyagainstageism 4.1Relatedcampaigns 4.2Accusationsofageism 5Seealso 6References 7Furtherreading 8Externallinks Classification[edit] Distinctionfromotherage-relatedbias[edit] Ageismincommonparlanceandagestudiesusuallyreferstonegativediscriminatorypracticesagainstoldpeople,peopleintheirmiddleyears,teenagersandchildren.Thereareseveralformsofage-relatedbias.Adultismisapredispositiontowardsadults,whichisseenasbiasedagainstchildren,youth,andallyoungpeoplewhoarenotaddressedorviewedasadults.[11]Thisincludespoliticalcandidacies,jobs,andculturalsettingswherethesupposedgreatervitalityand/orphysicalbeautyofyouthismoreappreciatedthanthesupposedgreatermoraland/orintellectualrigorofadulthood.Adultcentrismisthe"exaggeratedegocentrismofadults".[12]Adultocracyisthesocialconventionwhichdefines"maturity"and"immaturity",placingadultsinadominantpositionoveryoungpeople,boththeoreticallyandpractically.[13]Gerontocracyisaformofoligarchicalruleinwhichanentityisruledbyleaderswhoaresignificantlyolderthanmostoftheadultpopulation.[14]Chronocentrismisprimarilythebeliefthatacertainstateofhumanityissuperiortoallpreviousand/orfuturetimes.[15] Basedonaconceptualanalysisofageism,anewdefinitionofageismwasintroducedbyIversen,Larsen,&Solemin2009.Thisdefinitionconstitutesthefoundationforhigherreliabilityandvalidityinfutureresearchaboutageismanditscomplexityoffersanewwayofsystemizingtheoriesonageism:"Ageismisdefinedasnegativeorpositivestereotypes,prejudiceand/ordiscriminationagainst(ortotheadvantageof)elderlypeopleonthebasisoftheirchronologicalageoronthebasisofaperceptionofthemasbeing'old'or'elderly'.Ageismcanbeimplicitorexplicitandcanbeexpressedonamicro-,meso-ormacro-level"(Iversen,Larsen&Solem,2009).[16] Otherconditionsoffearoraversionassociatedwithagegroupshavetheirownnames,particularly:paedophobia,thefearofinfantsandchildren;ephebiphobia,thefearofyouth,[17]sometimesalsoreferredtoasanirrationalfearofadolescentsoraprejudiceagainstteenagers;[18]andgerontophobia,thefearofelderlypeople.[19] Implicitageism[edit] Implicitageismreferstothoughts,feelings,andjudgementsthatoperatewithoutconsciousawarenessandautomaticallyproduceineverydaylife.[1]Thesemaybeamixtureofpositiveandnegativethoughtsandfeelings,butgerontologistBeccaLevyreportsthatthey"tendtobemostlynegative".[20] Stereotyping[edit] Stereotypingisatoolofcognitionwhichinvolvescategorizingintogroupsandattributingcharacteristicstothesegroups.Stereotypesarenecessaryforprocessinghugevolumesofinformationwhichwouldotherwiseoverloadapersonandaregenerallyaccuratedescriptorsofgroupcharacteristics,thoughsomestereotypesareinaccurate.[21]However,theycancauseharmwhenthecontentofthestereotypeisincorrectwithrespecttomostofthegrouporwhereastereotypeissostronglyheldthatitoverridesevidencewhichshowsthatanindividualdoesnotconformtoit.Forexample,age-basedstereotypesprimeonetodrawverydifferentconclusionswhenoneseesanolderandayoungeradultwith,say,backpainoralimp.Onemightwellassumethattheyoungerperson'sconditionistemporaryandtreatable,followinganaccident,whiletheolderperson'sconditionischronicandlesssusceptibletointervention.Onaverage,thismightbetrue,butplentyofolderpeoplehaveaccidentsandrecoverquicklyandveryyoungpeople(suchasinfants,toddlers,andsmallchildren)canbecomepermanentlydisabledinthesamesituation.Thisassumptionmayhavenoconsequenceifonemakesitintheblinkofaneyeasoneispassingsomeoneinthestreet,butifitisheldbyahealthprofessionalofferingtreatmentormanagersthinkingaboutoccupationalhealth,itcouldinappropriatelyinfluencetheiractionsandleadtoage-relateddiscrimination. Managershavebeenaccused,byErdmanPalmore,asstereotypingolderworkersasbeingresistanttochange,notcreative,cautious,slowtomakejudgments,lowerinphysicalcapacity,uninterestedintechnologicalchange,anddifficulttotrain.[22]Anotherexampleiswhenpeoplearerudetochildrenbecauseoftheirhighpitchedvoice,eveniftheyarekindandcourteous.Areviewoftheresearchliteraturerelatedtoagestereotypesintheworkplacewaspublishedin2009intheJournalofManagement.[23] Contrarytocommonandmoreobviousformsofstereotyping,suchasracismandsexism,ageismismoreresistanttochange.Forinstance,ifachildbelievesinanageistideaagainsttheelderly,fewerpeoplecorrectthem,and,asaresult,individualsgrowupbelievinginageistideas,eveneldersthemselves.[24]Inotherwords,ageismcanbecomeaself-fulfillingprophecy. Ageistbeliefsagainsttheelderlyarecommonplaceintoday'ssociety.Forexample,anolderpersonwhoforgetssomethingcouldbequicktocallita"seniormoment",failingtorealizetheageismofthatstatement.Peoplealsooftenutterageistphrasessuchas"dirtyoldman"or"secondchildhood",andelderssometimesmisstheageistundertones.[24] Inaclassicstudyin1994,researchersanalyzedtheeffectsofageismamongtheelderly.[25]Theyperformedmemorytestsonthreeselectedgroups:residentsofChina,deafNorthAmericans,andhearingNorthAmericans.Inthethreegroups,theChineseresidentswerepresumablytheleastexposedtoageism,withlifelongexperienceinaculturethattraditionallyveneratesoldergenerations.LifelongdeafNorthAmericansalsofacedlessexposuretoageismincontrasttothosewithtypicalhearing,whopresumablyhadheardageistcommentstheirwholelife.Theresultsofthememorytestsshowedthatageismhassignificanteffectsonmemory. ThegapinthescoresbetweentheyoungandoldNorthAmericanswithnormalhearingweredoublethoseofthedeafNorthAmericansandfivetimeswiderthanthoseoftheChineseparticipants.Theresultsshowthatageismunderminesabilitythroughitsself-fulfillingnature.[24]Thestudywasinvestigatingtheeffectofthestereotypethreat,whichhasbeenexploredasapossiblereasonformemorydeficits,[26]thoughthestereotypethreathasbeencriticized.[27] Ontheotherhand,wheneldersshowlargerindependenceandcontrolintheirlives,defyingageistassumptions,theyaremorelikelytobehealthier,bothmentallyandphysically,thanotherpeopletheirage.[24] Researchindicatesthatolderpeoplearestereotypedasscoringloweronmeasuresofimpulsivity,activism,antagonismandopennesswhileyoungerpeoplearestereotypedasscoringhigheronthesemeasures.Thiswasfoundtobeuniversalacrossculturesandwasalsofoundtobereasonablyaccurate(varyingdependingonhowtheaccuracywasassessedandthetypeofstereotype),thoughdifferenceswereconsistentlyexaggerated.[28] However,asof2020,thereisstilllittleresearchonthesocialstatusofeldersacrosscultures.[5] Ageismcanalsomanifestsitselfinperceptionsofhowdateableoneis,whichhasculminatedintermssuchasthesexpirationdate,indicatingtheageafterwhichoneisnolongerappealing.[29] Prejudice[edit] Ageistprejudiceisatypeofemotionwhichisoftenlinkedtothecognitiveprocessofstereotyping.Itcaninvolvetheexpressionofderogatoryattitudes,whichmaythenleadtotheuseofdiscriminatorybehavior.Whereolderoryoungercontestantswererejectedinthebeliefthattheywerepoorperformers,thiscouldwellbetheresultofstereotyping.Butolderpeoplewerealsovotedforonastageinagamewhereitmadesensetotargetthebestperformers.Thiscanonlybeexplainedbyasubconsciousemotionalreactiontoolderpeople;inthiscase,theprejudicetooktheformofdistasteandadesiretoexcludeoneselffromthecompanyofolderpeople.[30] Stereotypingandprejudiceagainstdifferentgroupsinsocietydoesnottakethesameform.Age-basedprejudiceandstereotypingusuallyinvolvesolderoryoungerpeoplebeingpitied,marginalized,orpatronized.Thisisdescribedas"benevolentprejudice"becausethetendencytopityislinkedtoseeingolderoryoungerpeopleas"friendly"but"incompetent".AgeConcern'ssurveyrevealedstrongevidenceof"benevolentprejudice".48%saidthatover-70sareviewedasfriendly(comparedto27%whosaidthesameaboutunder-30s).Meanwhile,only26%believeover-70sareviewedascapable(with41%sayingthesameaboutunder-30s).[31] Digitalageism[edit] Digitalageismreferstotheprejudicesfacedbyolderadultsinthedigitalworld.Afewexamplesofthesubtlewaysinwhichdigitalageismoperatesinculturalrepresentations,research,andeverydaylife:Generationalsegregationnaturalizesyouthasdigitallyadeptandtheoldasdigitaldunces.Thereisnoempiricalevidence,though,foradigitaldividebetweenolderandyoungerpeople,withtheformerneverandthelatteralwayscapabletousedigitalmedia;afarmoreaccuratedescriptionisthatofadigitalspectrum.[32][33][34]Thereasonforthemythofdecliningcapabilitiesofolderpeoplecouldbethatmanyculturalrepresentationshavelonghistoriesreproducingimagesofthelifecycleasamountain,wherewepeakinmiddleagethendecline.[clarificationneeded][33][35][36]Olderadults'experiencesareoftenexcludedfromresearchagendasondigitalmedia,andageismisensconcedwithindisciplinessuchasmasscommunicationstudies.Forexample,inamediadiffusionistperspective,[37]thepracticesofseniorsaredepictedaseithernegligibleoraslagging,andtheequationofdiffusionwithindividualownershipcanhidepractical'workarounds'suchascellphonesharingormissedcallsusedbyoldercouplesonfixedincomes.[38][39] Ageisminstatistics[edit] Ageismisalsoinadvertentlyembeddedinthewaysstatisticsarecollected.Forexample,datacollectedbasedonlargeagecategories(e.g.,'60+')foistinganyoneover60into'thegreyzone'whichobscuresdifferences.[40]ThedependencyratiohasbeencriticizedbytheOfficeoftheUnitedNationsHighCommissionerforHumanRightsasbeingbasedontheageistassumptionthatolderpeoplearealwaysdependentoncarefromyoungerworkers.[41] Visualageism[edit] Thetermvisualageismwascoinedin2018byLoosandIvan.Theydefinevisualageismas"thesocialpracticeofvisuallyunderrepresentingolderpeopleormisrepresentingtheminaprejudicedway".[42]Wearefacingashiftfromvisualageismcharacterizedbyunderrepresentationandthenegativerepresentationofolderpeopletoarepresentationofolderagecharacterizedbyimagesofstereotypicallythirdageolderadults(enjoyinglifeandlivingtheir“goldenyears”),whileolderadultsintheirfourthage(inactiveandunabletoliveindependently)remaininvisible.Areviewofempiricalstudiesconductedsince1950inEuropeandNorthAmerica[42]revealsthatprintandtelevisionadvertisementsstartedthistransitiontowardsamorepositivevisualrepresentationofolderadultsintheirageduringthelastdecadeofthe20thcentury,followedbytelevisionprogramssomeyearslater,whileolderadultsintheirfourthageremaininvisible. Thisisprobablyduetotheincreaseinthirdagerhetoricinthemedia,picturingolderpeopleashealthyandaspotentialconsumers,enjoyinglifeandlivingtheirgoldenyears.Mediarepresentationsofolderpeoplehavemovedfromvisualunder-andmisrepresentation(negativeimages)[43][44][45][46]tomorepositivedepictions.[47][48][42]Thesedays,visualageisminthemediatendstocomewrappedintheguiseofthepositiveattributesofthirdagerepresentationsofolderpeople,whileadultsintheirfourthagecontinuetobeunderrepresented.Onepossibleexplanationforthisisthathealthythirdagersmightprefernottobeassociatedwithfourthagers,astheyremindthemtoostarklyofwhatliesaheadintheirownnearfuture.Althoughthisdiscomfortorevenfearaboutmortalityisundeniablycommon,fromasocietalpointofviewthiskindof(self)ageismishurtfultofourthagersasagroupandinasensetothirdagersaswell,astheyrisktobecomefourthagersthemselvesoneday.[42] Discrimination[edit] Seealso:AgediscriminationintheUnitedStates Agediscriminationistheresultofactionstakentodenyorlimitopportunitiestopeoplebasedonage.Theseareusuallyactionstakenasaresultofone'sageistbeliefsandattitudes.Agediscriminationoccursonbothapersonalandinstitutionallevel.[2] Onapersonallevel,anolderpersonmaybetoldthatheistoooldtoengageincertainphysicalactivities,likeaninformalgameofbasketballbetweenfriendsandfamily.Ayoungerpersonmaybetoldheistooyoungtogetajoborhelpmovethediningroomtable.Onaninstitutionallevel,therearepoliciesandregulationsinplacethatlimitopportunitiestopeopleofcertainagesanddenythemtoallothers.Thelaw,forinstance,requiresthatallpeoplemustbeatleast16yearsoldtoobtainadriver'slicenseintheUnitedStates.Therearealsogovernmentregulationsthatdeterminewhenaworkermayretire.Currently,intheUS,aworkermustbebetween65and67yearsold(dependinguponhisorherbirthyear)beforebecomingeligibleforfullSocialSecurityretirementbenefits(age62for70%benefits)butsomecompanypensionplansbeginbenefitsatearlierages.[citationneeded] A2006/2007surveydonebytheChildren'sRightsAllianceforEnglandandtheNationalChildren'sBureauasked4,060childrenandyoungpeoplewhethertheyhaveeverbeentreatedunfairlybasedonvariouscriteria(race,age,sex,sexualorientation,etc.).Atotalof43%ofBritishyouthsurveyedreportedexperiencingdiscriminationbasedontheirage,fareclipsingothercategoriesofdiscriminationlikesex(27%),race(11%),orsexualorientation(6%).[49]Consistently,astudybasedontheEuropeanSocialSurveyfoundthatwhereas35%ofEuropeansreportedexposureageism,only25%reportedexposuretosexismandasfewas17%reportedexposuretoracism.[50] Ageismhassignificanteffectsintwoparticularsectors:employmentandhealthcare.Agediscriminationhascontributedtodisparitiesinhealthbetweenmenandwomen.Reducingageismandsexismwouldpromoteimproveddoctor-patientrelationshipsandreduceageiststereotypesinthehealthcareindustry.[51] Employment[edit] Theconceptofageismwasoriginallydevelopedtorefertoprejudiceanddiscriminationagainstolderpeopleandmiddleagedpeople,buthasexpandedtoincludechildrenandteenagers.[31]Midlifeworkers,onaverage,makemorethanyoungerworkersdo,whichreflectseducationalachievementandexperience.Theage-wagepeakintheUnitedStates,accordingtoCensusdata,isbetween45and54yearsofage.Seniorityingeneralaccordswithrespectaspeopleage,lesseningageism.[citationneeded] Youngerfemaleworkerswerehistoricallydiscriminatedagainst,inwithyoungermen,becauseitwasexpectedthat,asyoungwomenofchildbearingyears,theywouldneedtoleavetheworkforcepermanentlyorperiodicallytohavechildren.[52]However,midlifefemaleworkersmayalsoexperiencediscriminationbasedontheirappearance[53]andmayfeellessvisibleandundervalued[54]inaculturewhereemphasisisonmaintaininganapprovedstandardofbeauty,e.g.'thin,pretty,White,andyoung'.[55]However,thesamestandardcouldhavenoeffectonmalecolleaguesofthesameage.[54] TheUnitedStatesfederalgovernmentrestrictsagediscriminationundertheAgeDiscriminationinEmploymentActof1967(ADEA).Thatlawprovidescertainemploymentprotectionstoworkerswhoareovertheageofforty,whoworkforanemployerwhohastwentyormoreemployees.Forprotectedworkers,theADEAprohibitsdiscriminationatalllevelsofemployment,fromrecruitmentandhiring,throughtheemploymentrelationship,andthroughdecisionsforlayoffsorterminationoftheemploymentrelationship.[56]Anagelimitmayonlybelegallyspecifiedforprotectedworkersinthecircumstancewhereagehasbeenshowntobea"bonafideoccupationalqualification[BFOQ]reasonablynecessarytothenormaloperationoftheparticularbusiness"(see29 U.S.C. § 623(f)(1)).Inpractice,BFOQsforagearelimitedtotheobvious(hiringayoungactortoplayayoungcharacterinamovie)orwhenpublicsafetyisatstake(forexample,inthecaseofagelimitsforpilotsandbusdrivers).TheADEAdoesnotstopanemployerfromfavoringanolderemployeeoverayoungerone,evenwhentheyoungeroneisover40yearsold.[57] IntheUK,agediscriminationagainstolderpeoplehasbeenprohibitedinemploymentsince2006.[58]Furtherrefinementstoanti-discriminationlawsoccurredin2010.[59] InfographicshowingtheprocessoffililnganEqualEmploymentOpportunityCommissioncomplaint,withagediscrimintationbeingpossiblegroundsforEEOCintervention AgediscriminationinhiringhasbeenshowntoexistintheUnitedStates.TheEqualEmploymentOpportunityCommission'sfirstcomplainantswerefemaleflightattendantscomplainingof(amongothermatters)agediscrimination.[60]In1968,theEEOCdeclaredagerestrictionsonflightattendants'employmenttobeillegalsexdiscriminationunderTitleVIIoftheCivilRightsActof1964.[61]However,JoannaLahey,professoratTheBushSchoolofGovernmentandPublicServiceatTexasA&M,foundrecently[when?]thatfirmsaremorethan40%morelikelytointerviewayoungadultjobapplicantthananolderjobapplicant.[62]Inordertofulfilljobpostingswithyouthfulstaff,companiesturntorecruitmentcompaniestomeettheirneeds.Manysourcesplaceblameonrecruitmentpracticesasitistheonewaythatagediscriminationcangoincognitoatthehandsofothers.Sofica(2012)states"AstudyruninWashingtonin1999showsthat84%oftherecruitmentagenciesarediscriminatingcomparedtoonly29%ofthecompaniesthatdotheirown.[63]DobsonstatesthataccordingtoWeisbeck’s(2017)research,"Peoplehaveanaturalbiastohirepeoplelikethemselves"(p. 3).[64]Lahey(2008)alsostatedwithinherresearch"Sinceitismoredifficultforworkerstodeterminewhythefailedtoreceiveaninterviewthanitisforworkerstodeterminewhytheyhavebeenfired,firmsthatwishtoretainonlyacertaintypeofworkerwithoutbeingsuedwouldprefertodiscriminateinthehiringstateratherthanatanypointoftheemploymentprocess"(p. 31).[65]AllstatesintheUSprohibityouthunder14fromworkingwithahandfulofexceptionsandprohibityouthunder18fromworkinginhazardousoccupations.Theyarealsopaidalowerminimumwageandnotallowedtoworkfull-time. AlsoinEurope,pervasivelevelsofagediscriminationarefoundinBelgium,England,France,Spain,andSweden.Jobcandidatesrevealingolderagearefoundtoget39%(inBelgium)to72%(inFrance)lessjobinterviewinvitationscomparedtoequalcandidatesrevealingayoungerage.[66][67][68][69][70][71][72]Inaddition,InasurveyfortheUniversityofKent,England,29%ofrespondentsstatedthattheyhadsufferedfromagediscrimination.Thisisahigherproportionthanforgenderorracialdiscrimination.DominicAbrams,socialpsychologyprofessorattheuniversity,concludedthatageismisthemostpervasiveformofprejudiceexperiencedintheUKpopulation.[73]Discriminationisfoundtobeheterogeneousbytheactivityoldercandidatesundertookduringtheiradditionalpost-educationalyears.InBelgium,theyareonlydiscriminatediftheyhavemoreyearsofinactivityorirrelevantemployment.[66] AccordingtoDr.RobertM.McCann,anassociateprofessorofmanagementcommunicationattheUniversityofSouthernCalifornia'sMarshallSchoolofBusiness,denigratingolderworkers,evenifonlysubtly,canhaveanoutsizednegativeimpactonemployeeproductivityandcorporateprofits.[citationneeded]ForAmericancorporations,agediscriminationcanleadtosignificantexpenses.InFiscalYear2006,theU.S.EqualEmploymentOpportunityCommissionreceivednearly17,000chargesofagediscrimination,resolvingmorethan14,000andrecovering$51.5millioninmonetarybenefits.Costsfromlawsuitsettlementsandjudgmentscanrunintothemillions,mostnotablywiththe$250millionpaidbytheCaliforniaPublicEmployees'RetirementSystem(CalPERS)underasettlementagreementin2003.[74][75] Hollywood[edit] AgeisminHollywood,specificallyintermsofwomen,isprofound,fromthewayyouthispraisedtothelackofjobsforolderactresses.Thewayyouthispraisedreflectsdirectlyonthewayolderwomenarepresentedinthemedia.PresidentandCEOoftheAmericanAssociationofAdvertisingAgencies,O.BurtchDrake,spokeintermsofolderwomen'srepresentationthroughoutthemediastating"olderwomenarenotbeingportrayedatall;thereisnoimagerytoworryabout."[76]Womenoverfiftyarenotthecenterofattentionandifanactressisoldertheyareexpectedtoactanythingbuttheirage.[77]Thestandardssetforwomeninfilmarefixateduponyouth,sexuality,andbeauty.Moviesthatportrayolderwomenactingtheirownageseemexaggeratedandunrealisticbecauseitdoesnotfitthenormsassociatedwithwomeninfilmandmedia.[77]Asaresult,olderactressesfaceweakeremploymentopportunities.[78][79] Becauseofthelimitedagesthefilmindustryportraysandthelackofolderactresses,societyasawholehasatypeofilliteracyaboutsexualityandthoseofoldage.Thereisanalmostinherentbiasaboutwhatolderwomenarecapableof,whattheydo,andhowtheyfeel.[80]Amongstallagesofactressesthereistheattempttolookyouthfulandfittingtothebeautystandardsbyalteringthemselvesphysically,manytimesunderthehandsofplasticsurgeons.[77]Womenbecomefrightfulofwhattheywillbeseenasiftheyhavewrinkles,cellulite,oranyothersignifierofaging.[78]Aswomenreachtheirfortiesandfifties,thepressuretoadheretosocietalbeautynormsseenamongstfilmsandmediaintensifiesintermsofnewcosmeticproceduresandproductsthatwillmaintaina"foreveryouthful"look.[78]Intermsofsexuality,olderwomenareseenasunattractive,bitter,unhappy,andunsuccessfulinfilms.Witholderwomennotbeingrepresentedinthemediaandfilmindustries,specificallyinHollywood,thoughtsofunderachievement,ugliness,anddisgustcrowdthethoughtsofolderwomenastheyfailtomeetbeautynorms.Thiscancausedepression,anxiety,andself-esteemissuesingeneral.[78]"Inonesurvey,womenreportedfeelingmoreembarrassedabouttheiragethanbytheirmasturbationpracticesorsame-gendersexualencounters."[78] Whenawomanistoldsheisold,shecanstarttobelievethatsheis.Awomancanstartactingasifsheisolderthanshebelievesbecausesheinternalizeswhatotherpeoplearesayingandwhattheythinkabouther.[81] Infilmthefemalebodyisdepictedindifferentstatesofdressandportrayeddifferentlydependingontheageoftheactress.Theirclothingisusedasanidentitymarkerofthecharacter.Youngwomenareputintorevealingandsexycostumeswhereasolderwomenoftenplaythepartofamotherorgrandmothercladinabonnetorapron.[82]Asidefromnolongerrepresentingtheidealfemalemodel,post-menopausalwomenarestereotypedasmentallyunstable."Theybecomequarrelsome,vexatiousandoverbearing,pettyandstingy;thatistosaytheyexhibittypicallysadisticandanal-erotictraitsthattheydidnotpossessearlier...(Freud1958,323-24)"[82] Healthcare[edit] Thereisconsiderableevidenceofdiscriminationagainsttheelderlyinhealthcare.[83][84][85]Thisisparticularlytrueforaspectsofthephysician-patientinteraction,suchasscreeningprocedures,informationexchanges,andtreatmentdecisions.Inthepatient-physicianinteraction,physiciansandotherhealthcareprovidersmayholdattitudes,beliefs,andbehaviorsthatareassociatedwithageismagainstolderpatients.Studieshavefoundthatsomephysiciansdonotseemtoshowanycareorconcerntowardtreatingthemedicalproblemsofolderpeople.Then,wheninteractingwiththeseolderpatientsonthejob,thedoctorssometimesviewthemwithdisgustanddescribetheminnegativeways,suchas"depressing"or"crazy".[86]Forscreeningprocedures,elderlypeoplearelesslikelythanyoungerpeopletobescreenedforcancersand,duetothelackofthispreventivemeasure,lesslikelytobediagnosedatearlystagesoftheirconditions.[87] Afterbeingdiagnosedwithadiseasethatmaybepotentiallycurable,olderpeoplearefurtherdiscriminatedagainst.Thoughtheremaybesurgeriesoroperationswithhighsurvivalratesthatmightcuretheircondition,olderpatientsarelesslikelythanyoungerpatientstoreceiveallthenecessarytreatments.Forexample,healthprofessionalspursuelessaggressivetreatmentoptionsinolderpatients,[88]andfeweradultsareenrolledintestsofnewprescriptiondrugs.[89]Ithasbeenpositedthatthisisbecausedoctorsfeartheirolderpatientsarenotphysicallystrongenoughtotoleratethecurativetreatmentsandaremorelikelytohavecomplicationsduringsurgerythatmayendindeath. Otherresearchstudieshavebeendonewithpatientswithheartdisease,and,inthesecases,theolderpatientswerestilllesslikelytoreceivefurthertestsortreatments,independentoftheseverityoftheirhealthproblems.Thus,theapproachtothetreatmentofolderpeopleisconcentratedonmanagingthediseaseratherthanpreventingorcuringit.Thisisbasedonthestereotypethatitisthenaturalprocessofagingforthequalityofhealthtodecrease,and,therefore,thereisnopointinattemptingtopreventtheinevitabledeclineofoldage.[86][87] Furthermore,caregiversfurtherunderminethetreatmentofolderpatientsbyhelpingthemtoomuch,whichdecreasesindependence,[90]andbymakingageneralizedassumptionandtreatingallelderlyasfeeble.[24] Differentialmedicaltreatmentofelderlypeoplecanhavesignificanteffectsontheirhealthoutcomes,adifferentialoutcomewhichsomehowescapesestablishedprotections. In2017,theEuropeanCourtofHumanRightsruledinfavorofMariaIvoneCarvalhoPintodeSousaMorais,whohadhadanoperationthatwasmishandledandrenderedherunabletohavesex.Portuguesejudgeshadpreviouslyreduceddamagestoherin2014,rulingthenthattheoperation,whichoccurredwhenshewas50,hadhappenedat"anagewhensexisnotasimportantasinyoungeryears."TheEuropeanCourtofHumanRightsrejectedthatdecision,withthemajority'srulingstatinginpart,"Thequestionatissuehereisnotconsiderationsofageorsexassuch,butrathertheassumptionthatsexualityisnotasimportantfora50-year-oldwomanandmotheroftwochildrenasforsomeoneofayoungerage.Thatassumptionreflectsatraditionalideaoffemalesexualityasbeingessentiallylinkedtochildbearingpurposesandthusignoresitsphysicalandpsychologicalrelevancefortheself-fulfillmentofwomenaspeople."[91] Effectsofageism[edit] Ageismhassignificanteffectsontheelderlyandyoungpeople.Theseeffectsmightbeseenwithindifferentlevels:person,selectedcompany,wholeeconomy.[92]Thestereotypesandinfantilizationofolderandyoungerpeoplebypatronizinglanguageaffectsolderandyoungerpeople'sself-esteemandbehaviors.Afterrepeatedlyhearingastereotypethatolderoryoungerpeopleareuseless,olderandyoungerpeoplemaybegintofeellikedependent,non-contributingmembersofsociety.Theymaystarttoperceivethemselvesintermsofthelooking-glassself—thatis,inthesamewaysthatothersinsocietyseethem.Studieshavealsospecificallyshownthatwhenolderandyoungerpeoplehearthesestereotypesabouttheirsupposedincompetenceanduselessness,theyperformworseonmeasuresofcompetenceandmemory.[93]Thesestereotypesthenbecomeself-fulfillingprophecies.AccordingtoBeccaLevy'sStereotypeEmbodimentTheory,olderandyoungerpeoplemightalsoengageinself-stereotypes,takingtheirculture'sagestereotypes—towhichtheyhavebeenexposedoverthelifecourse—anddirectingtheminwardtowardthemselves.Thenthisbehaviorreinforcesthepresentstereotypesandtreatmentoftheelderly.[20][86] Manyovercomethesestereotypesandlivethewaytheywant,butitcanbedifficulttoavoiddeeplyingrainedprejudice,especiallyifonehasbeenexposedtoageistviewsinchildhoodoradolescence. CatholicChurch[edit] In1970,PopePaulVIruledthatCardinalswhohadreachedtheageof80yearscouldnotbepartoftheelectionofanewPope.Healsodeclaredthatyearthatuponreachingtheir80thbirthdayCardinalswouldnolongerbemembersofadministrativedepartmentsandotherpermanentVaticaninstitutions.HefurtherstatedthatyearthatCardinalsinchargeofdepartmentsoftheRomanCuriaandotherpermanentcentralchurchinstitutionsshouldresignvoluntarilywhentheyreach75yearsold,andthatthePopewoulddecidewhethertoaccepteachresignationonanindividualbasis.[94] COVID-19pandemic[edit] AgeismduringtheCOVID-19pandemicinearly2020wasprimarilycausedbythesurfacingofdatapointingtheelderlyasvulnerablegroups.[95][96]A2020studypublishedinTheJournalsofGerontologyfoundthatthevulnerabilityofolderadultswasseenasaproblemtobesolvedthroughforcedandindefinitesegregationorisolation,andsuchmeasureswerewidelyseenasacceptablebysociety.Olderadultswereoftenblamedfortheensuinglockdownsandrestrictions.[95]A2021studypublishedinTheSociologicalReviewcharacterizedthetreatmentofeldersamidthepandemicas"intergenerationaldiscounting":"breakdowninreciprocalobligationsofcare,givingrisetoaccusationsofhypocrisy,expressionsofresentmentandrage,andthedescriptionofthevirusasthe'Boomerremover'."Inparticular,thestudyfoundthatyoungergenerationsperceivedthepandemicascomparabletoclimatechangeasacrisis,andsawthedisproportionateeffectofCOVID-19onoldergenerationsas"karmic"duetothelatter'ssupposedfailureinmitigatingclimatechange.[96]Theterm"Boomerremover"trendedonTwitterasanicknameforthedisease,appearinginover65,000tweetsbyMarch2020.[97] Africa[edit] Nigeria[edit] InNovember2011,theNigerianHouseofRepresentativesconsideredabillwhichwouldoutlawagediscriminationinemployment.[98] America[edit] Canada[edit] Section15(1)oftheCanadianCharterofRightsandFreedomsstatesthat"everyindividualisequalbeforeandunderthelawandhastherighttoequalprotectionandequalbenefitofthelawwithoutdiscriminationand,inparticular,withoutdiscriminationbasedon ...age"(aswellasotherprotectedclasses).[99] InCanada,Article718.2,clause(a)(i),oftheCriminalCodedefinesasaggravatingcircumstances,amongothersituations,"evidencethattheoffencewasmotivatedby ...age".[100][101] MandatoryretirementwaslargelyendedinCanadainDecember2011,[102]but74%ofCanadiansstillconsideragediscriminationtobeaproblem.[103] RetirementageforCanadianairlinepilotsisprovidedbyeachairlinewithsomesettoage60,butchangestotheCanadianHumanRightsActhaverestrictedretirementagesetbytheairlines.[104] Colombia[edit] MeasurestakentopreventthespreadofCOVID-19wereespeciallystrictonolderpeopleinColombia.Thegovernmentprohibitedanyoneover70yearsofagefromleavingtheirhouse.[105]Amidpublicbacklash,therestrictionwastakentocourtandoverturned. UnitedStates[edit] Mainarticle:AgediscriminationintheUnitedStates IntheUnitedStates,eachstatehasitsownlawsregardingagediscrimination,andtherearealsofederallaws.[106]InCalifornia,theFairEmploymentandHousingActforbidsunlawfuldiscriminationagainstpersonsage40andolder.TheFEHAistheprincipalCaliforniastatuteprohibitingemploymentdiscrimination,coveringemployers,labororganizations,employmentagencies,apprenticeshipprogramsand/oranypersonorentitywhoaids,abets,incites,compels,orcoercesthedoingofadiscriminatoryact.Inadditiontoage,itprohibitsemploymentdiscriminationbasedonraceorcolor;religion;nationaloriginorancestry,disability,mentaltypeormedicalcondition;maritalstatus;sexorsexualorientation;andpregnancy,childbirth,orrelatedmedicalconditions.[107]Althoughtherearemanyprotectionsforage-baseddiscriminationagainstolderworkers(asshownabove)therearelessprotectionsforyoungerworkers.[citationneeded] TheDistrictofColumbiaandtwelvestates(California,Florida,Iowa,Hawaii,Kansas,Louisiana,Maine,Minnesota,Nebraska,NewMexico,NewYork,andVermont)defineageasaspecificmotivationforhatecrimes.[108][109] ThefederalgovernmentrestrictsagediscriminationundertheAgeDiscriminationinEmploymentActof1967(ADEA).Thatlawprovidescertainemploymentprotectionstoworkerswhoareovertheageofforty,whoworkforanemployerwhohastwentyormoreemployees.Forprotectedworkers,theADEAprohibitsdiscriminationatalllevelsofemployment,fromrecruitmentandhiring,throughtheemploymentrelationship,andthroughdecisionsforlayoffsorterminationoftheemploymentrelationship.[56]Anagelimitmayonlybelegallyspecifiedforprotectedworkersinthecircumstancewhereagehasbeenshowntobea"bonafideoccupationalqualification[BFOQ]reasonablynecessarytothenormaloperationoftheparticularbusiness"(see29 U.S.C. § 623(f)(1)).Inpractice,BFOQsforagearelimitedtotheobvious(hiringayoungactortoplayayoungcharacterinamovie)orwhenpublicsafetyisatstake(forexample,inthecaseofagelimitsforpilotsandbusdrivers).TheADEAdoesnotstopanemployerfromfavoringanolderemployeeoverayoungerone,evenwhentheyoungeroneisover40yearsold.[57] PresidentJimmyCartersigninglegislationagainstmandatoryretirementin1978 MandatoryretirementduetoageisgenerallyunlawfulintheUnitedStates,exceptincertainindustriesandoccupationsthatareregulatedbylaw,andareoftenpartofthegovernment(suchasmilitaryserviceandfederalpoliceagencies,suchastheFederalBureauofInvestigation).Minnesotahasstatutorilyestablishedmandatoryretirementforalljudgesatage70(moreprecisely,attheendofthemonthajudgereachesthatage).TheMinnesotaLegislaturehashadtheconstitutionalrighttosetjudicialretirementagessince1956,butdidnotdosountil1973,settingtheageat70.[110]TheFederalAgeDiscriminationinEmploymentAct,whichbecamelawin1986,endedmandatoryage-relatedretirementatage70formanyjobs,notincludingtheMinnesotajudiciary;[110]anotherexceptionwasallpostsecondaryinstitutions(colleges,etc.)ThisexceptionendedonDecember31,1993.[111][112]TheFairTreatmentforExperiencedPilotsAct(PublicLaw110-135)wentintoeffectonDecember13,2007,raisingthemandatoryretirementageforpilotsto65fromtheprevious60.[113] InSeptember2016,CaliforniapassedstatebillAB-1687,ananti-ageismlawtakingeffecton1January2017,requiring"commercialonlineentertainmentemployment"servicesthatallowpaidsubscriberstosubmitinformationandresumes(suchasIMDBPro),tohonorrequeststohavetheiragesandbirthdaysremoved.ThebillwassupportedbySAG-AFTRA'sformerandcurrentpresidentsKenHowardandGabrielleCarteris,whofeltthatthelawwouldhelptoreduceageismintheentertainmentindustry.[114]On23February2017,U.S.DistrictJudgeVinceGirdhariChhabriaissuedastayonthebillpendingafurthertrial,claimingthatitwas"difficulttoimaginehowAB1687couldnotviolatetheFirstAmendment"becauseitinhibitedthepublicconsumptionoffactualinformation.[115]InFebruary2018,Girdhariruledthatthelawwasunconstitutional,arguingthatthestateofCalifornia"[had]notshownthatpartiallyeliminatingonesourceofage-relatedinformationwillappreciablydiminishtheamountofagediscriminationoccurringintheentertainmentindustry."TherulingwascriticizedbySAG-AFTRA,allegingthatthecourt"incorrectlyconcludedtherewerenomaterialdisputedfactualissues,whileprecludingthepartiesfromacquiringadditionalevidenceorpermittingthecasetogototrial".Therulingwaseventuallyappealed,buttheNinthCircuitCourtofAppealsuphelditin2020.[116] AsiaandOceania[edit] Australia[edit] Inregardstoemployment,discriminationonthebasisofageisillegalineachofthestatesandterritoriesofAustralia.Atthenationallevel,Australiaispartytoanumberofinternationaltreatiesandconventionsthatimposeobligationstoeliminateagediscrimination.[117] TheAustralianHumanRightsCommissionAct1986establishedtheAustralianHumanRightsCommissionandbestowsonthisCommissionfunctionsinrelationtoanumberofinternationaltreatiesandconventionsthatcoveragediscrimination.[117][118]During1998-1999,15%ofcomplaintsreceivedbytheCommissionundertheActwereaboutdiscriminationonthebasisofage.[117] AgediscriminationlawsatthenationallevelwerestrengthenedbytheAgeDiscriminationAct2004,whichhelpstoensurethatpeoplearenotsubjectedtoagediscriminationinvariousareasofpubliclife,includingemployment,theprovisionofgoodsandservices,education,andtheadministrationofAustraliangovernmentlawsandprograms.TheAct,however,doesprovideforexemptionsinsomeareas,aswellasprovidingforpositivediscrimination,thatis,actionswhichassistpeopleofaparticularagewhoexperienceadisadvantagebecauseoftheirage.[118] In2011,thepositionofAgeDiscriminationCommissionerwascreatedwithintheAustralianHumanRightsCommission.TheCommissioner'sresponsibilitiesincluderaisingawarenessamongemployersaboutthebeneficialcontributionsthatseniorAustraliansaswellasyoungeremployeescanmakeintheworkforce.[119]EverystateinAustraliahasaprobationaryplatesystemfordrivers.ThisisallowedbecausetheAgeDiscriminationActsaysthat,insomecircumstances,treatingsomeonedifferentlybecauseoftheiragewon'tbeagainstthelaw.Thisisknownasanexemptionandincludes: thingsdoneincompliancewithCommonwealthlaws,includinglawsabouttaxation,socialsecurityandmigration thingsdoneincompliancewithstateandterritorylaws certainhealthandemploymentprogrammes youthwagesordirectcompliancewithindustrialagreementsandawards.[120] Overthepastfewyears,theHumanRightsCommissionhasconductedanumberofresearchprojectsonageismincludingWhat'sAgeGottodowithitin2021,Employingandretainingolderworkersin2021andtheWillingtoWork:HealthyAgeingPaperin2016. OtheractiveorganisationsincludeEveryAgeCounts-anadvocacycampaignaimedattacklingageismagainstolderAustraliansandCOTA(CouncilontheAgeing)whooperateinmoststatesandpromotetherights,interestsandgoodfuturesofAustraliansastheyage. Inadditiontothecommunitybasedorganisations,thereareanumberoffor-profitorganisationshelpingmatureAustralianswithjobplacement,recruitment,self-employmentskillsandbusinessskillsincludingSilver&Wise,MaturiousRecruit50PlusandOlderWorkers. Philippines[edit] Atleasttwobillshavebeenfiledbeforethe16thCongressofthePhilippinesseekingtoaddressagediscriminationinemploymentinthecountry.TheBlasOplePolicyCenter,anon-governmentorganization,assertsthatresponsibilitiesofmakingalivelihoodinahouseholdhasshiftedtoyoungermembersofthefamilyduetobiasagainsthiringpeopleolderthan30yearsofage.Theorganizationalsoaddedthatagediscriminationcontributestotheunemploymentrateandactsasahurdletoinclusivegrowthinthecountry.OverseasFilipinoWorkersreturningfromabroadseekingtofindworkinthecountryweretaggedasvulnerabletoagediscrimination.[121][122] Europe[edit] EuropeanUnion[edit] TheEuropeancitizenshipprovidestherighttoprotectionfromdiscriminationonthegroundsofage.AccordingtoArticle21-1oftheCharterofFundamentalRightsoftheEuropeanUnions:CharterofFundamentalRightsoftheEuropeanUnion#CHAPTERIII.EQUALITY,"anydiscriminationbasedonanygroundsuchas …age,shallbeprohibited".[123] AdditionalprotectionagainstagediscriminationcomesfromtheFrameworkDirective2000/78/EC.Itprohibitsdiscriminationongroundsofageinthefieldofemployment.[124] Germany[edit] On18August2006,theGeneralEqualTreatmentAct(AllgemeinesGleichbehandlungsgesetz,AGG)cameintoforce.TheaimoftheAGGistopreventandabolishdiscriminationonvariousgroundsincludingage.[125] Arecent[when?]studysuggestedthatyouthsinGermanyfeelthebruntofagediscrimination.[126] France[edit] InFrance,Articles225-1through225-4ofthePenalCodedetailthepenalizationofAgeism,whenitcomestoanagediscriminationrelatedtotheconsumptionofagoodorservice,totheexerciseofaneconomicactivity,tothelabormarketoraninternship,exceptinthecasesforeseeninArticle225-3.[127][128][129] Belgium[edit] InBelgium,theLawof25February2003"tendingtofightdiscrimination"punishesAgeismwhen"adifferenceoftreatmentthatlacksobjectiveandreasonablejustificationisdirectlybasedon ...age".Discriminationisforbiddenwhenitreferstoprovidingorofferingagoodorservice,toconditionslinkedtoworkoremployment,totheappointmentorpromotionofanemployee,andyettotheaccessorparticipationin"aneconomic,social,culturalorpoliticalactivityaccessibletothepublic"(Article2nd,§4).Incitementtodiscrimination,tohatredortoviolenceagainstapersonoragrouponthegroundsof ...age(Article6)ispunishedwithimprisonmentand/orafine.[130][131] Nevertheless,employmentopportunitiesareworseningforpeopleintheirmiddleyearsinmanyofthesesamecountries,accordingtoMartinKohlietal.inTimeforRetirement(1991). Sweden[edit] TheSwedishDiscriminationAct(2008:567)wasenactedin2008andstatesthat:"thepurposeoftheActistocombatdiscriminationandinotherwayspromoteequalrightsandopportunitiesregardlessofsex ...orage."[132]InSweden,consideringtheincreasedproportionofolderpeople,ageismisalsodiscussedinthecontextofhealthcaresectorandhealthprofessionstudentssuchasnursingstudents.[133] UnitedKingdom[edit] BarbaraRobb,founderoftheAidfortheElderlyinGovernmentInstitutionspressuregroup BarbaraRobb,founderoftheBritishpressuregroup,AidfortheElderlyinGovernmentInstitutions(AEGIS),compiledSansEverything:ACasetoAnswer,acontroversialbookdetailingtheinadequaciesofcareprovidedforolderpeople,whichpromptedanationwidescandalintheUKin1976.Althoughinitiallyofficialinquiriesintotheseallegationsreportedthattheywere"totallyunfoundedorgrosslyexaggerated",[134]hercampaignsledtorevealingofotherinstancesofilltreatmentwhichwereacceptedandpromptedthegovernmenttoimplementNHSpolicychanges.[135] CouncillorRichardThomasbroughtuptheissueofagediscriminationatanearlystageatameetingofBracknellForestCouncilinMarch1983.Hepointedoutitisadoublesideprocess,withdiscriminationworkingagainstbotholderandyoungercitizens.[citationneeded] IntheUK,agediscriminationlawswerefirstbroughtintoforceinOctober2006[136]andcanbefoundintheEqualityAct2010,whichimplementstheEqualTreatmentFrameworkDirective2000/78/ECandprotectsemployeesagainstdirectdiscrimination,indirectdiscrimination,harassmentandvictimisation.PursuanttotheEqualityAct2010itisgenerallyunlawfultodiscriminatebaseduponageintheprovisionofgoodsandservices.[137] Therehavebeenmanynotablecasesandofficialstatisticsshowa37%increaseinclaimsin2009/10[138]andafurther31%increasein2010/11.[139]ExamplesincludethecaseinvolvingRollsRoyce,[140]the"Heyday"casebroughtbyAgeUK[141]andtheMiriamO'ReillycaseagainsttheBBC(2011).[142] TheEuropeanSocialStudysurveyin2011revealedthatnearlytwooutoffivepeopleclaimtohavebeenshownalackofrespectbecauseoftheirage.ThesurveysuggestedthattheUKisrivenbyintergenerationalsplits,withhalfofthepeopleadmittingtheydonothaveasinglefriendover70;thiscompareswithonlyathirdofPortuguese,SwissandGermanswhosaythattheydonothaveafriendofthatageorolder.[143]ADemosstudyin2012showedthatthree-quartersofpeopleintheUKbelievedtheretobenotenoughopportunitiesforolderandyoungerpeopletomeetandworktogether.[144] The"GreyPride"campaignhasadvocatedforaMinisterforOlderPeopleandhadsomesuccessin2011whenformerLabourLeaderEdMilibandappointedLizKendallasShadowMinisterforOlderPeople.[145] In2011,theartistMichaelFreedman,anoutspokenadvocateagainstagediscriminationwithintheartworldsaysthat"maturestudents,likeme,cometoartlateinlife,sowhyarewepenalisedanddemotivated?Whateverhappenedtolifelonglearningandthenotionofaflexibleworkforce?"[146] Advocacyagainstageism[edit] A14-year-oldnewsboyinNewYorkCity,1910 TheNewsboysStrikeof1899foughtageistemploymentpracticestargetedagainstyouthbylargenewspapersyndicatesintheNortheastofAmerica.Thestrikersdemonstratedacrossthecityforseveraldays,effectivelystoppingcirculationofthetwopapers,alongwiththenewsdistributionformanyNewEnglandcities.Thestrikelastedtwoweeks,causingPulitzer'sNewYorkWorldtodecreaseitscirculationfrom360,000paperssoldperdayto125,000.[147]Althoughthepriceofpaperswasnotlowered,thestrikewassuccessfulinforcingtheWorldandJournaltoofferfullbuybackstotheirsellers,thusincreasingtheamountofmoneythatnewsiesreceivedfortheirwork.[148] TheAmericanYouthCongress,orAYC,wasformedin1935toadvocateforyouthrightsinU.S.politics.Itendedin1940.[149] AARPboothatBostonPrideFestival,2017 AARPwasfoundedin1958byEthelPercyAndrus(aretirededucatorfromCalifornia)andLeonardDavis(laterthefounderoftheColonialPennGroupofinsurancecompanies).[150][151]Itsstatedmissionis"toempowerpeopletochoosehowtheyliveastheyage".[152]ItisaninfluentiallobbyinggroupintheUnitedStatesfocusinglargelyonissuesaffectingtheelderly.[153][154] AidfortheElderlyinGovernmentInstitutions(AEGIS)wasaBritishpressuregroupthatcampaignedtoimprovethecareofolderpeopleinlong-staywardsofNationalHealthServicepsychiatrichospitals.[155][156]ThegroupwasfoundedbyBarbaraRobbin1965,[156]andwasactiveuntilherdeathin1976.[157] TheGrayPantherswasformedin1970byMaggieKuhn,withagoalofeliminatingmandatoryretirementintheUnitedStates;theynowworkonmanysocialjusticeissuesincludingeliminatingageism.[158][159][160] YouthLiberationofAnnArborstartedin1970topromoteyouthandfightageism. ThreeO'ClockLobbyformedin1976topromoteyouthparticipationthroughouttraditionallyageistgovernmentstructuresinMichigan. OldLesbiansOrganizingforChangewasfoundedin1987;themissionoftheorganizationisto"eliminatetheoppressionofageismandtostandinsolidarityagainstalloppressions"through“[the]cooperativecommunityofOldLesbianfeministactivistsfrommanybackgroundsworkingforjusticeandthewell-beingofalloldlesbians.”[161]TheirinitialmeetingwasinspiredbythepublicationofthebookLookMeintheEye:OldWomen,AgingandAgeismbyBarbaraMacdonaldandCynthiaRichin1983.[162] AmericansforaSocietyFreefromAgeRestrictionsformedin1996toadvancethecivilandhumanrightsofyoungpeoplethrougheliminatingageistlawstargetedagainstyoungpeople,andtohelpyouthcounterageisminAmerica.[163] NationalYouthRightsAssociationmembersprotestingthevotingageinBerkeley,California(2004) TheNationalYouthRightsAssociationstartedin1998topromoteawarenessofthelegalandhumanrightsofyoungpeopleintheUnitedStates.[164] TheFreechildProjectwasformedin2001intheUnitedStatestoidentify,unifyandpromotediverseopportunitiesforyouthengagementinsocialchangebyfightingageism. Relatedcampaigns[edit] DirectorPaulWeitzreportedhewrotethe2004film,InGoodCompany,torevealhowageismaffectsyouthandadults.[165] In2002TheFreechildProjectcreatedaninformationandtraininginitiativetoprovideresourcestoyouthorganizationsandschoolsfocusedonyouthrights.[166] In2006LydiaGiménez-LLort,anassistantprofessorofPsychiatryandresearcherattheAutonomousUniversityofBarcelonacoinedtheterm'SnowWhiteSyndrome'atthe'CongrésdelaGentGrandeCerdanyoladelVallès'(CongressoftheElderlyofCerdanyoladelVallès,Barcelona,Spain)asametaphortodefineAgeisminaneasierandmorefriendlywaywhiledevelopingaconstructivespiritagainstit.Themetaphorisbasedonboththeauto-AgeismandadultocracyexhibitedbytheevilqueenoftheSnowWhitefairytaleaswellasthesocialAgeismsymbolizedbythemirror.[167] Since2008'TheIntergenerationalStudy'byLydiaGiménez-LLortandPaulaRamírez-BoixfromtheAutonomousUniversityofBarcelonaisaimedtofindthebasisofthelinkbetweengrandparentsandgrandsons(positivefamilyrelationships)thatcanminimizetheAgeismtowardstheelderly.StudentsofseveralSpanishuniversitieshaveenrolledinthisstudywhichsoonwillbealsoperformedintheUS,Nigeria,Barbados,Argentina,andMexico.Thepreliminaryresultsrevealthat'TheIntergenerationalstudyquestionnaire'inducesyoungpeopletodoareflexiveandautocriticanalysisoftheirintergenerationalrelationshipsincontrasttothoseshowntowardsotherunrelatedoldpeoplewhichresultsverypositivetochallengeAgeism.Acortometrageabout'TheInternationalStudy'hasbeendirectedandproducedbyTomásSunyerfromLosAngelesCityCollege.[168] Votesat16intendstolowerthevotingageintheUnitedKingdomto16,reducingAgeismandgiving16-year-oldsequalpayontheNationalMinimumWage.Thegroupclaimsthat16-year-oldsgetlessmoneythanolderpeopleforthesamework,angeringmany16-year-olds.Theyadditionallypostulatethat16-year-oldswillhavetheirvoicelistenedtobyolderpeoplemoreoften. ChileandirectorSebastianLeliocreatedaU.S.versionofhisacclaimed2013filmGloria.[169]Theoriginalfilmchallengesthenotionthataswomenagetheybecomeculturally'invisible';[170]theymaycontinuetobepowerful,desirable,andsexuallyactive.Inthe2018Englishremake,titledGloriaBell,actressJulianneMooreportrayedtheleadcharacter.[171][172] Accusationsofageism[edit] Ina2005interview,actorPierceBrosnancitedageismasoneofthecontributingfactorsastowhyhewasnotaskedtocontinuehisroleasJamesBondintheBondfilmCasinoRoyale,releasedin2006.[173] Also,successfulsingerandactressMadonnaspokeoutinher50saboutageismandherfighttodefythenormsofsociety.[174]In2015,BBCRadio1wereaccusedofageismafterthestationdidnotaddhernewsingletotheirplaylist.Similarly,SexandtheCitystarKimCattrallhasalsoraisedtheissueofageism.[175] A2007PewResearchCenterstudyfoundthatamajorityofAmericanvoterswouldbelesslikelytovoteforaPresidentpastagivenage,[which?]with45%sayingthatagewouldnotmatter.[citationneeded] MargaretMorganrothGullette's2017book,EndingAgeismorHowNottoShootOldPeople,providesmultipleexamplestoillustratethepervasivenessofageismanddeliversacalltoaction.[176] Seealso[edit] Adultism AgediscriminationintheUnitedStates Agestratification Agingbrain AgingintheAmericanworkforce(related:the"silvertsunami"metaphor) Codename:KidsNextDoor Elderrights Ephebiphobia Generation Gerontocracy Gerontophobia InternationalDayofOlderPersons Mandatoryretirement Memoryandaging OKboomer Pedophobia Powerharassment Prejudice Rankism TheSilverTsunami(metaphor) Youkidsgetoffmylawn! 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^"Envellirbé :SuccessfulAgeing·Saberenvejecerwebsite–Research"(inSpanish).Archivedfromtheoriginalon23April2009.Retrieved13May2009. ^Abbady,Tal(26November2017)."WillaU.S.AdaptationRuinSebastianLelio'sGloria?".TheAtlantic.Retrieved28November2017. ^Isopahkala-Bouret,Ulpukka(2017).""It'sagreatbenefittohavegrayhair!":Theintersectionofgender,aging,andvisibilityinmidlifeprofessionalwomen'snarratives".JournalofWomen&Aging.29(3):267–277.doi:10.1080/08952841.2016.1142773.PMID 27629496.S2CID 33967941. ^Ford,Rebecca(12May2017)."Cannes:JulianneMooretoStarinRe-ImaginingofSebastianLelio's'Gloria'".HollywoodReporter.Retrieved28November2017. ^Dargis,Manohla(7March2019)."'GloriaBell'Review:LoveIsintheAirforaTranscendentJulianneMoore".TheNewYorkTimes.Retrieved29July2019. ^Cox,John(5November2005)."BrosnanBaresAllForPlayboy".CommanderBond.net.Archivedfromtheoriginalon2July2006.Retrieved15April2019. 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Furtherreading[edit] Applewhite,Ashton(2016).ThisChairRocks:AManifestoAgainstAgeism.ISBN 978-0996934701. Ayalon,L.,&Tesch-Römer,C.(Eds.).(2018).Contemporaryperspectivesonageism.SpringerInternationalPublishing. Barnes,PatriciaG.(2014).Betrayed:TheLegalizationofAgeDiscriminationintheWorkplace.ISBN 978-0-9898708-1-8. Bergling,Tim(2004).ReelingintheYears:GayMen'sPerspectivesonAgeandAgeism.NewYork,NY:SouthernTierEditions,HarringtonParkPress.ISBN 978-1-56023-370-1.OCLC 52166116. Bytheway,Bill(1995).Ageism.Buckingham;Bristol,PA:OpenUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-335-19176-5.OCLC 30733778. Calasanti,ToniM.andKathleenF.Slevin(2006).AgeMatters:RealigningFeministThinking.NewYork,NY:Routledge.ISBN 978-0-415-95223-1.OCLC 65400440. Copper,Barbara(1987).AgeismintheLesbianCommunity.JournalofLesbianStudies.Vol. 19.Freedom,CA:CrossingPress.pp. 7–12.doi:10.1080/10894160.2015.972303.ISBN 978-0895942364.OCLC 16331354.PMID 25575317.S2CID 39302695. Cruikshank,Margaret(2003).LearningtobeOld:Gender,Culture,andAging.Lanham,MD:Rowman&LittlefieldPublishers.ISBN 978-0-8476-9848-6.OCLC 49566317. Eglit,HowardC.(2004).EldersonTrial:AgeandAgeismintheAmericanLegalSystem.Gainesville,FL:UniversityPressofFlorida.ISBN 978-0-8130-2765-4.OCLC 56482087. Gaster,Lucy(2002).Pastitat40?:AGrassrootsViewofAgeismandDiscriminationinEmployment:AReport.Bristol,England:ThePolicyPress.ISBN 978-1-86134-484-7.OCLC 51802692. Glover,Ian;Glover,MohamedBranine(2001).AgeisminWorkandEmployment.Aldershot,England;Burlington,VT:Ashgate.ISBN 978-1-84014-149-8.OCLC 45487982. Gravagne,PamelaH.(2013).TheBecomingofAge:CinematicVisionsofMind,BodyandIdentityinLaterLife.Jefferson,NC:McFarland.ISBN 978-0-7864-7260-4. Gullette,MargaretMorganroth(2004).AgedbyCulture.Chicago,IL:UniversityofChicagoPress.ISBN 978-0-226-31062-6.OCLC 52514302. Gullette,MargaretMorganroth(2011).Agewise:FightingtheNewAgeisminAmerica.Chicago,IL:UniversityofChicagoPress.ISBN 978-0-226-31073-2. Gullette,MargaretMorganroth(1997).DecliningtoDecline:CulturalCombatandthePoliticsoftheMidlife.Charlottesville,VA:UniversityPressofVirginia.ISBN 978-0-8139-1721-4.OCLC 35986171. Kimmel,D.C.(1988)."Ageism,psychology,andpublicpolicy".AmericanPsychologist.43(3):175–178.doi:10.1037/0003-066x.43.3.175.PMID 3364853. Kite,M.E.;Johnson,B.T.(1988)."Attitudestowardsolderandyoungeradults:Ameta-analysis".PsychologyandAging.3(3):232–244.doi:10.1037/0882-7974.3.3.233. Lagacé,Martine;et al.(2010).L'Âgisme:Comprendreetchangerleregardsocialsurlevieillissement(inFrench).QuebecCity,Quebec:Pressesdel'UniversitéLaval(PUL).ISBN 978-2-7637-8781-7.OCLC 632095367. RobinMorgan,ed.(2003).SisterhoodIsForever:TheWomen'sAnthologyforaNewMillennium(specificallythepiece"ThePoliticsofAging"byBarbaraMacdonald).NewYork,NY:WashingtonSquarePress.ISBN 978-0-7434-6627-1.OCLC 760003303. RobinMorgan,ed.(1970).SisterhoodisPowerful:AnAnthologyofWritingsFromTheWomen'sLiberationMovement(specificallythepiece"Ithurtstobealiveandobsolete:theageingwoman"byZoeMoss).NewYork,NY:RandomHouse.ISBN 978-0-394-70539-2.OCLC 96157. Macdonald,Barbara;Rich,Cynthia(2001).LookMeintheEye:OldWomen,AgingandAgeism.Tallahassee,FL:SpinstersInkBooks.ISBN 978-1883523404.OCLC 198557801. Macnicol,John(2006).AgeDiscrimination:AnHistoricalandContemporaryAnalysis.Cambridge,England:CambridgeUniversity.ISBN 978-0-521-84777-3.OCLC 61176543. Nelson,ToddD.(2002).Ageism:StereotypingandPrejudiceAgainstOlderPersons.Cambridge,MA:MITPress.ISBN 978-0-262-14077-5.OCLC 47863229. Nelson,T.D.(2005)."Ageism:Prejudiceagainstourfearedfutureself".JournalofSocialIssues.61(2):207–221.doi:10.1111/j.1540-4560.2005.00402.x.S2CID 10632570. Nelson,T.D.(2015).Ageism.InT.D.Nelson(Ed.),HandbookofPrejudice,Stereotyping,andDiscrimination(2ndEd.).NewYork:PsychologyPress. Palmore,Erdman;LaurenceBranch;DianaHarris,eds.(2005).EncyclopediaofAgeism.Binghamton,NY:HaworthPastoralPress:HaworthReferencePress.ISBN 978-0-7890-1889-2.OCLC 55801014. ProkuratS.,FabisiakJ.,AgeManagementasaToolfortheDemographicDeclineinthe21stCentury:AnOverviewofitsCharacteristics,JournalofEntrepreneurship,ManagementandInnovation,8/2012,pp. 83–96. Thompson,Neil(2006).Anti-DiscriminatoryPractice(4th ed.).Basingstoke,England;NewYork,NY:PalgraveMacmillan.ISBN 978-1-4039-2160-4.OCLC 62302620. Externallinks[edit] LookupAgeisminWiktionary,thefreedictionary. 2005issueoftheJournalofSocialIssuesThematicjournalissuedevotedtoempiricalandtheoreticalresearchonAgeism. Ageism–DiscriminationAgainstAgeAKnolexaminingAgeismandsocialattitudesagainstdifferentagegroups. AgeDiscriminationatWork:Wellpoint/BlueCross AgediscriminationlawsbytheBBC AgediscriminationstatisticsfortheUK,Europeandtheworld AgeingatworkEU-OSHA Ageism:StereotypingandPrejudiceAgainstOlderPersonsEditedscholarlyvolumeofthelatestresearchandtheoryonAgeism. EveryonedeservestobegivenachanceAnessayagainstAgeismtowardsteenagers,writtenbyaCanadianadolescent. Anin-depthlookatAgeismbyLindaM.Woolfe,PhD,ofWebsterUniversity ArticleonOlderDrivers. AgeismInAmericaDetailedreportonAgeismfromtheInternationalLongevityCenter. Ayalon,Liat(2013)."FeelingstowardsOldervs.YoungerAdults:ResultsfromtheEuropeanSocialSurvey".EducationalGerontology.39(12):888–901.doi:10.1080/03601277.2013.767620.S2CID 143103077. InterviewwithsocialpsychologistsSusanFiskeandMikeNorthaboutcommonstereotypesofolderpeople.(Ayalon,Liat(2013)."FeelingstowardsOldervs.YoungerAdults:ResultsfromtheEuropeanSocialSurvey".EducationalGerontology.39(12):888–901.doi:10.1080/03601277.2013.767620.S2CID 143103077.) Ayalon,Liat;Doron,I;Bodner,E;Inbar,N(2014)."Macro-andmicro-levelpredictorsofagecategorization:resultsfromtheEuropeanSocialSurvey".EuropeanJournalofAgeing.11(1):5–18.doi:10.1007/s10433-013-0282-8.PMC 5549183.PMID 28804310. OldLesbiansOrganizingforChange Yechezkel,Rachel;Ayalon,Liat(2013)."SocialWorkers'AttitudestowardsIntimatePartnerAbuseinYoungervs.OlderWomen".JournalofFamilyViolence.28(4):381–391.doi:10.1007/s10896-013-9506-0.S2CID 21902989. 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