Transitional justice - Wikipedia

Transitional justice is a process which responds to massive human rights violations through judicial redress, political reforms in a region or country, ... Transitionaljustice FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Measuresimplementedtorespondtolarge-scalehumanrightsviolations Transitionaljusticeisaprocesswhichrespondstomassivehumanrightsviolationsthroughjudicialredress,politicalreformsinaregionorcountry,andothermeasuresinordertopreventtherecurrenceofhumanrightsabuse.Transitionaljusticeconsistsofjudicialandnon-judicialmeasuresimplementedinordertoredresslegaciesofhumanrightsabuses.Suchmeasures"includecriminalprosecutions,truthcommissions,reparationsprograms,andvariouskindsofinstitutionalreforms".[1]Transitionaljusticeisinstitutedatapointofpoliticaltransitionclassicallyfromwartopositivepeace,ormorebroadlyfromviolenceandrepressiontosocietalstability(thoughsometimesitisdoneyearslater)anditisinformedbyasociety’sdesiretorebuildsocialtrust,reestablishwhatisrightfromwhatiswrong,repairafracturedjusticesystem,andbuildademocraticsystemofgovernance.Thecorevalueoftransitionaljusticeistheverynotionofjustice—whichdoesnotnecessarilymeancriminaljustice.Thisnotionandthepoliticaltransformation,suchasregimechangeortransitionfromconflictarethuslinkedtoamorepeaceful,certain,anddemocraticfuture. Transitionaljusticeinthemodernerahasreceivedgreaterattentionfrombothacademicsandpolicymakers.Itisalsowidelydiscussedinpoliticalandlegalcircles,especiallyintransitionalsocieties.Duringpoliticaltransitionsfromauthoritarianordictatorialregimesorfromcivilconflictstodemocracy,transitionaljusticehasoftenprovidedopportunitiesforsuchsocietiestoaddresspasthumanrightsabuses,massatrocities,orotherformsofseveretraumainordertoincreasetheprobabilityofatransitionintoamoredemocratic,just,peacefulfuture. Contents 1History 2Definitions 3Objectives 4Strategies 5Prosecutions 5.1InternationalCriminalCourt 5.2Hybridcourtsandtribunals 5.3Reparations 5.4Truth-seeking 5.4.1Truthcommissions 5.5Memoryandmemorials 5.6Institutionalreform 6Trendsandchallenges 6.1Literaryapplications 7Futureagenda 8Majorcases 9Seealso 10References 11Bibliography 12Externallinks History[edit] Theoriginsofthetransitionaljusticefieldcanbetracedbacktothepost-WorldWar IIperiodinEuropewiththeestablishmentoftheInternationalMilitaryTribunalatNurembergandthevariousde-NazificationprogramsinGermanyandthetrialsofJapanesesoldiersattheTokyoTribunal.Whatbecameknownasthe"NurembergTrials",whenthevictoriousalliedforcesextendedcriminaljusticetoJapaneseandGermansoldiersandtheirleadersforwarcrimescommittedduringthewar,markedthegenesisoftransitionaljustice.Thefieldgainedmomentumandcoherenceduringthe1980sandonwards,beginningwiththetrialsofformermembersofthemilitaryjuntasinGreece(1975),andArgentina(TrialoftheJuntas,1983).Thefocusoftransitionaljusticeinthe1970sand1980swasoncriminaljusticewithafocusonhumanrightspromotion.Thisledtoaworldwidefocusandprogressiveriseofhumanrightsregimeculminatingintheestablishmentsofinternationalhumanrightslawsandconventions. Theemphasisoftransitionaljusticewasonhowabusesofhumanrightsgettreatedduringpoliticaltransition:legalandcriminalprosecution.Asnotedearlier,theuniversalconceptionsof"justice"becametheplatformonwhichtransitionaljusticewaspremised.Thefieldinitsearlyepistemology,thus,assumedjurisprudenceofhumanrights.Asaresult,theinitialliteratureontransitionaljusticewasdominatedbylawyers,law,andlegalrights:defininglaws,andprocessesonhowtodealwithhumanrightsabuseandholdingpeopleaccountable.Thus,transitionaljusticehasitsrootsinboththehumanrightsmovementandininternationalhumanrightsandhumanitarianlaw.Theseoriginsinthehumanrightsmovementhaverenderedtransitionaljustice“self-consciouslyvictim-centric”. Thelate1980sandearly1990ssawashiftinthefocusoftransitionaljustice.Informedbytheworldwidewaveofdemocratization,particularlythethirdwave,transitionaljusticereemergedasanewfieldofstudyindemocratization.Transitionaljusticebroadeneditsscopefrommorenarrowquestionsofjurisprudencetopoliticalconsiderationsofdevelopingstabledemocraticinstitutionsandrenewingcivilsociety.Studiesbyscholarsonthetransitionfromautocraticregimestodemocraticoneshaveintegratedthetransitionaljusticeframeworkintoanexaminationofthepoliticalprocessesinherenttodemocraticchange.Thechallengesofdemocratizationintransitionalperiodsaremany:settlingpastaccountswithoutderailingdemocraticprogress,developingjudicialorthird-partyforacapableofresolvingconflicts,reparations,andcreatingmemorialsanddevelopingeducationalcurriculathatredressculturallacunaeandunhealedtrauma. Itisclearthatelementsoftransitionaljusticehavebrokentheinitialmoldofpost-warjurisprudence.Thetransitionaljusticeframeworkhasbenefitedfromdemocraticactivistswhosoughttobolsterfledglingdemocraciesandbringthemintolinewiththemoralandlegalobligationsarticulatedintheinternationalhumanrightsconsensus. Canada,Australia,andNewZealandhaveusedtransitionaljusticeapproachestoaddressIndigenousoppression.RacialjusticeissuesintheUnitedStateshavebeendiscussedusingtransitionaljusticelanguage.[2] Oneparticularinnovationistheappearanceoftruthcommissions.BeginningwithArgentinain1983,Chilein1990,andSouthAfricain1995,truthcommissionshavebecomeasymboloftransitionaljustice,appearingintransitionalsocietiesinLatinAmerica,Africa,Asia,andEasternEurope.However,severalattemptstocreatearegionaltruthcommissionintheformerYugoslavia(REKOM)havefailedduetopoliticalobstacles.RecentyearshavealsoseenproposalsfortruthandreconciliationcommissionsinconflictzonesoftheMiddleEastanditislikelythatthesetransitionaljusticeinstitutionswillsomedayfigureprominentlyinIsraelandPalestine,Iraq,Lebanon,andtheKurdishregions.[originalresearch?] AnothermajorinstitutionalinnovationistheappearanceofthevarietyoflustrationprogramsinCentralandEasternEuropesincethe1990s.Whilemostcountriespursuedprogramsbasedondismissalsofcompromisedpersonnelandcomprehensivescreeningtools,othercountriesimplementedmoreinclusivemethodsallowingdiscreditedpersonnelasecondchance.[3] Asalinkbetweentransitionandjustice,theconceptoftransitionaljusticetransformedinthelate1940stoassumeabroaderperspectiveofcomprehensiveexaminationofthesocietyintransitionfromaretrospectivetoaprospectivepositionwithdemocraticconsolidationasoneoftheprimaryobjectives.Scholarsandpractitionersofdemocratizationhavecometoacommonconclusiononthegeneralprinciplesofatransitionaljusticeframework:thatnationalstrategiestoconfrontpastabuses,dependingonthespecificnatureandcontextofthecountryinquestion,cancontributetoaccountability,anendtoimpunity,reconstructstate–citizenrelations,andthecreationofdemocraticinstitutions. AccordingtotheInternationalCenterforTransitionalJustice(ICTJ)andtheinternationalTaskForceonJustice,anintegralelementoftheSustainableDevelopmentGoals(SDGs)includesthereductionofthe"justicegap"[4]TheWorkingGrouponTransitionalJusticeandSDG16+saidthat"whiletheSDGsareuniversal","massiveandserioushumanrightsviolationscreateconditionsinwhichextraordinaryjusticeinterventionsarerequiredtomakeprogresstowardsustainablepeaceanddevelopment."[4][5] Definitions[edit] AccordingtotheICTJ,theterm"transitionaljustice"wascoinedbyvariousAmericanacademicsinthe1990sto"describethedifferentwaysthatcountrieshadapproachedtheproblemsofnewregimescomingtopowerfacedwithmassiveviolationsbytheirpredecessors." TheICTJsaysthattransitionaljustice"referstothewayscountriesemergingfromperiodsofconflictandrepressionaddresslarge-scaleorsystematichumanrightsviolationssonumerousandsoseriousthatthenormaljusticesystemwillnotbeabletoprovideanadequateresponse."[6]Measuresusedincludecriminalprosecutions,truthcommissions,reparationsandrestitutionprograms,exhumationofmassgraves,apologies,amnesty,memorials,film,literature,scientificresearch,rewritingschooltextbooks,lustrationandvetting,andvariouskindsofinstitutionalreformstoredresshumanrightsabuses.[6] Transitionaljusticerepresentsasetofsuchextraordinaryresponses,oftendeliveredduringcriticaljuncturessuchastransitionsfromwartopeaceorfromauthoritarianismtodemocracy.Transitionaljusticeismeanttobothredressgrossviolationsandidentifyavenuestoaddressthestructuralcausesofthoseviolations,suchasgenderinequalityandsocialexclusion.Whiletransitionaljusticeincludescriminalaccountability,itisundergirdedbyabroaderunderstandingofjusticethattakesintoaccountarangeofvictimneedsandsocietalpriorities.TransitionaljusticeisnecessarysothattheSDGsdonotleavebehindcommunitiesincountriesthathaveexperiencedmassiverightsviolations.— ICTJJanuary31,2019,https://www.ictj.org/news/sustainable-peace-after-mass-atrocities-case-transitional-justice Objectives[edit] Theprimaryobjectiveofatransitionaljusticepolicyistoendthecultureofimpunityandestablishtheruleoflawinacontextofdemocraticgovernance.Thelegalandhumanrightsprotectionrootsoftransitionaljusticeimputecertainlegalobligationsonstatesundergoingtransitions.Itchallengessuchsocietiestostriveforasocietywhererespectforhumanrightsisthecoreandaccountabilityisroutinelypracticedasthemaingoals.Inthecontextofthesegoals,transitionaljusticeaimsat: Haltingongoinghumanrightsabuses; Investigatingpastcrimes; Identifyingthoseresponsibleforhumanrightsviolations; Imposingsanctionsonthoseresponsible(whereitcan); Providingreparationstovictims; Preventingfutureabuses; Strengthen,remake,andreformstateinstitutions; SecuritySectorReform; Preservingandenhancingpeace; Legitimizecurrentstate; Delegitimizepaststate; Fosteringindividualandnationalreconciliation; Recognizevictimsasequalcitizens; Acknowledgingthepastaccurately; Helptransitiontoamorejust,equitable,peaceful,anddemocraticsociety. Ingeneral,therefore,onecanidentifyeightbroadobjectivesthattransitionaljusticeaimstoserve:establishingthetruth,providingvictimsapublicplatform,holdingperpetratorsaccountable,strengtheningtheruleoflaw,providingvictimswithcompensation,effectuatinginstitutionalreform,promotingreconciliation,andpromotingpublicdeliberation. Strategies[edit] Inordertobeeffective,transitionaljusticemeasuresshouldbepartofaholisticapproach.Somehumanrightsabusescanresultincriminalprosecutions,particularlythemostseriousones.[6]Investigationstoseekthetruthandfact-findingprocessesintohumanrightsviolationsbynon-judicialbodiesincludeTruthCommissions.[6]Reparationprogramscanbeintheformof"individual,collective,material,and/orsymbolic"reparations.Asaresultofinvestigations,convictionsand/orinvestigations,neworreformedlawsmaybeadoptedandinstitutionsreformed,includingthoserelatedtothe"police,judiciary,military,andmilitaryintelligence."[6]Insomecasesthereareeffortstomemorializationoftheabuses.Affirmativeactionpoliciesaresometimesusedtofacilitatetransition.[7]Genderjusticeensureswomenhaveequalaccesstothemechanisms. Prosecutions[edit] Mainarticle:Internationalcriminallaw Theinvestigationandprosecutionofseriousinternationalcrimes,suchasgenocide,crimesagainsthumanity,andwarcrimeshelpstostrengthentheruleoflawbysanctioningthosewhoviolatelawswithcriminalpenalties.Italsodemonstratesthatcrimewillnotbetolerated,andthathumanrightsabuserswillbeheldaccountablefortheiractions.[8]FromitshistoricalrootsintheNurembergTrials,recentexampleshaveincludedInternationalCriminalTribunalforRwandaandInternationalCriminalTribunalfortheformerYugoslavia,hybridcourtssuchasSpecialCourtforSierraLeone,SpecialPanelsoftheDiliDistrictCourt,ExtraordinaryChambersintheCourtsofCambodia,CourtofBosniaandHerzegovina,andtheestablishmentoftheInternationalCriminalCourt(ICC),assumingauniversaljurisdiction.TheICCandHybridCourts/Tribunalsarekeycomponentsofprosecutioninitiatives: InternationalCriminalCourt[edit] Mainarticle:InternationalCriminalCourt TheInternationalCriminalCourt(ICC)wasestablishedbytheRomeStatutein1998.Itisthefirstinternationalcriminalcourtthathelpsendimpunityforperpetratorsofseverecrimes.Itwasestablishedtoinvestigateandtryleadersofgenocide,warcrimes,andcrimesagainsthumanityincaseswherecountriesareunableorunwillingtodoso.[9] Hybridcourtsandtribunals[edit] Hybridcourtsandtribunalshaveemergedas“thirdgeneration”courtsestablishedtoinvestigateandprosecutehumanrightsoffenses.[10]Theyfollowthe“firstgeneration”NurembergandTokyotribunalsandthe“secondgeneration”InternationalCriminalCourtandInternationalCriminalTribunalsfortheformerYugoslavia(ICTY)andRwanda(ICTR).Thesecourtsconsistofbothinternationalanddomesticjusticeactors.Theyattempttodeliverjusticethatthedomesticjusticesystemscannotprovidealoneduetolackofcapacityorpoliticalwill.Furthermore,hybridcourtsattempttostrengthendomesticcapacitiestoprosecutehumanrightsabusesthroughthetransferofinternationallegalskillsandexpertise.ExamplesincludetheSpecialCourtforSierraLeoneandtheExtraordinaryChambersintheCourtsofCambodia.[11]AstepbeyondwithinamoresocietalandtraditionalscopeofjusticecouldbetheGacacaforRwanda. Reparations[edit] Mainarticle:Reparations(transitionaljustice) Reparationsaimtorepairthesufferingofvictimsofhumanrightsabuses.Theyseektomakeamendswithvictims,helpthemovercometheconsequencesofabuse,andproviderehabilitation.Theymayincludefinancialpayments,socialservicesincludinghealthcareoreducation,orsymboliccompensationsuchaspublicapologies.[12]OneexampleistheCanadiangovernment’sapology“StatementofReconciliation”toindigenousCanadianfamiliesforremovingtheirchildrenandplacingtheminchurch-runIndianResidentialSchools.TheCanadiangovernmentalsocreateda$350 millionfundtohelpthoseaffectedbytheschools. Truth-seeking[edit] Mainarticle:Truth-seeking Truth-seekingencompassesinitiativesallowingactorsinacountrytoinvestigatepastabusesandseekredressforvictims.Theseprocessesaimtoenablesocietiestoexamineandcometotermswithpastcrimesandhumanrightsviolationsinordertopreventtheirrecurrence.Theyhelpcreatedocumentationthatpreventsrepressiveregimesfromrewritinghistoryanddenyingthepast.Theycanalsohelpvictimsobtainclosurebyknowingthetruthaboutwhatactuallyhappened(suchasto“disappeared”people)andunderstandingtheatrocitiestheyendured.Truth-seekingmeasuresmayincludefreedomofinformationlegislation,declassificationofarchives,investigations,andtruthcommissions.[13] Truthcommissions[edit] Mainarticle:Truthcommissions Truthcommissionsarenon-judicialcommissionsofinquirythataimtodiscoverandrevealpastabusesbyagovernmentornon-stateactors;aboutfortyofficialtruthcommissionshavebeencreatedworldwide.[14]OneexampleistheTruthandReconciliationCommissioninSouthAfrica,whichwasestablishedtohelpovercomeapartheidandreconciletensionsinthecountry. Memoryandmemorials[edit] Mainarticle:Memorialization Memorialsseektopreservememoriesofpeopleorevents.Inthecontextoftransitionaljustice,theyservetohonorthosewhodiedduringconflictorotheratrocities,examinethepast,addresscontemporaryissuesandshowrespecttovictims.Theycanhelpcreaterecordstopreventdenialandhelpsocietiesmoveforward.Memorialsmayincludecommemorationactivities,suchasarchitecturalmemorials,museums,andothercommemorativeevents.[13]Oneexampleincludesthemonuments,annualprayerceremony,andmassgraveinnorthernUganda,createdinresponsetothewarconductedbyandagainsttheLord’sResistanceArmythere.[15] Institutionalreform[edit] Mainarticle:Securitysectorreform Publicinstitutions,includingthepolice,military,andjudiciary,oftencontributetorepressionandotherhumanrightsviolations.Whensocietiesundergoatransition,theseinstitutionsmustbereformedinordertocreateaccountabilityandpreventtherecurrenceofabuse.Institutionalreformincludestheprocessofrestructuringthesestateactorstoensurethattheyrespecthumanrightsandabidebytheruleoflaw.[16] Reformscanincludemeasuressuchasvetting,lustration,andDisarmament,DemobilizationandReintegration(DDR).Vettingistheprocessofeliminatingcorruptorabusiveofficialsfrompublicserviceemployment.Forinstance,inAfghanistan,electioncandidatesinthe2009and2010electionswerevetted.[17]Whilesimilartolustration,"vetting"isthebroadercategoryreferringtoprocessesaimedatscreeningandexcludinghumanrightsabusersfrompublicinstitutionswhile"lustration"refersspecificallytothevettingprocessesandlawsthatwereimplementedintheformercommunistcountriesinEasternandCentralEuropeaftertheendoftheColdWar.[18]Vettingdoesnotnecessarilyimplydismissalsfromthestateapparatus.Severalcountriesdevelopedalternativepersonnelsystemsthatprovidefortheinclusionofinheritedpersonnelinexchangefortheirexposureorconfession.[19]DDRprogramsassistex‑combatantsinrejoiningsociety.[20] OneexampleofinstitutionalreformistheremovalofcourtofficialsinvolvedincrimesofthefallenTunisianregime.UnderBenAli’srule,courtsoftenfacilitatedcorruption.Theremovalofimplicatedofficialsisapartofthegovernment’seffortstoreconcilethisabuse.[21] Trendsandchallenges[edit] Statesintimesoftransitiontodemocracy,sincetheearly1980s,havebeenusingavarietyoftransitionaljusticemechanismsaspartofmeasurestoaccountforthepastandbuildafuturedemocraticstate.Mechanisms,suchastrials,truthcommissions,reparations,lustration,museums,andothermemorysiteshavebeenemployedeithersingle-handedlyorinacombinedformtoaddresspasthumanrightsviolations.Diversestudiesrangingfromthedecision-makingprocessofachoiceofstrategythroughtotheimplementationofthetransitionaljusticepolicyandimpactsonthetransitionandfuturestabilityofthesocietyinquestionhavebeenproducedbyscholarsinrecentyears.OneilluminatingstudyinparticularthathasdocumentedthedramaticnewtrendoftransitionaljusticeanddemocratizationisbyKathrynSikkinkandCarrieBoothWalling(2006).Intheirresearchpaperdescribedasthe"justicecascade",SikkinkandWallingconductinganalysisoftruthcommissionsandhumanrightstrialsoccurringthroughouttheworldfrom1979to2004revealedasignificantincreaseinthejudicializationofworldpoliticsbothregionallyandinternationally.Ofthe192countriessurveyed,34haveusedtruthcommissions,and50hadatleastonetransitionalhumanrightstrial. Morethantwo-thirdsoftheapproximately85newand/ortransitionalcountriesduringthatperiodusedeithertrialsortruthcommissionsasatransitionaljusticemechanism;overhalftriedsomeformofjudicialproceedings.Thus,theuseofatruthcommissionand/orhumanrightstrialsamongtransitionalcountriesisnotanisolatedormarginalpractice,butawidespreadsocialpracticeoccurringinthebulkoftransitionalcountries. Sinceitsemergence,transitionaljusticehasencounterednumerouschallengessuchasidentifyingvictims,decidingwhethertopunishsuperiorsormiddleagents,avoidinga"victor’sjustice",andfindingadequateresourcesforcompensation,trial,orinstitutionalreform.Also,thetransitionalperiodmayonlyresultinatenuouspeaceorfragiledemocracy.Ashasbeennotedinthediscourseontransitiontodemocracy,thedilemmahasalwaysbeenfornewregimestopromoteaccountabilityforpastabuseswithoutriskingasmoothtransitiontodemocracy.Inaddition,existingjudicialsystemmightbeweak,corrupt,orineffectiveandineffectmakeachievinganyviablejusticedifficult.Observersoftransitionaljusticeapplicationandprocesses,suchasMakauW.Mutua(2000)emphasizedonthedifficultiesofachievingactualjusticethroughoneofthemostprominentmechanismsoftransitionaljustice,trials.CommentingontheinternationaltribunalestablishedinRwandain1994,hearguedthatit“servestodeflectresponsibility,toassuagetheconsciencesofstateswhichwereunwillingtostopthegenocide...[and]largelymaskstheillegitimacyoftheTutsiregime”.Insum,MatuaarguesthatcriminaltribunalssuchasthoseinRwandaandYugoslaviaare“lessmeaningfuliftheycannotbeappliedorenforcedwithoutprejudicetoredresstransgressionsorunlesstheyhaveadeterrenteffectsuchasbehaviormodificationonthepartofwouldbeperpetrators”. Morerecently,LyalS.Sungahasarguedthatunlesstruthcommissionsaresetupandconductedaccordingtointernationalhumanrightslaw,internationalcriminallawandinternationalhumanitarianlaw,theyriskconflictingorunderminingcriminalprosecutions,whethertheseprosecutionsaresupposedtobecarriedoutatthenationalorinternationallevels.Hecontendsthatthisriskisparticularlypronouncedwheretruthcommissionsemployamnesties,andespeciallyblanketamnestiestopardonperpetratorsofseriouscrimes.Ontheotherhand,criminalprosecutionsshouldbebettertailoredtofocusonvictimsandtoplaceeventsinproperperspective.Sungathereforeproposestenprinciplesformakingtruthandnationalreconciliationcommissionsfullycomplementarytocriminalprosecutionsinawaythatconformsfullytointernationallaw.[22] Thistypeofcritiqueoftransitionaljusticemechanismscouldcausesomescholarsandpolicymakerstowonderwhichoftheobjectivesoutlinedabovearemostimportanttoachieve,andeveniftheyareachievable.Truthcommissionscouldbecharacterizedasasecond-bestalternativeandalsoanaffronttoruleoflaw,becauseofthepossibilitythatamnestyandindemnitieswillbemadeexchangefortruth.Thesesetsofchallengescanraisecriticalquestionsfortransitionaljusticeinitsapplication.Questionsandissues,suchas:Canthe"truth"everreallybeestablished?Canallvictimsbegivencompensationorapublicplatform?Canallperpetratorsbeheldaccountable?Orisitsufficienttoacknowledgethatatrocitieswerecommittedandthatvictimsshouldbecompensatedfortheirsuffering? Also,onemightarguethattoonarrowafocusonthechallengesofthefieldrunstheriskofmakingtransitionaljusticeseemmeaningless.Howevertransitionaljusticeaimsatanongoingsearchfortruth,justice,forgiveness,andhealing,andeffortsundertakenwithinithelppeopletolivealongsideformerenemies.Simplyput,“thepastmustbeaddressedinordertoreachthefuture”.Thus,eveniftheimpactorreachoftransitionaljusticeseemsmarginal,theendresultisworththeeffort. Anotherwayofassessingattemptsattransitionaljusticeistosaythatdecisionmakersmayhavelesscontroloverthemethodsusedtopursuesuchpoliciesthantheyimagine.Infact,whatevertheirwishes,theymaynotbeabletopreventsuchpoliciesatall.AsA. JamesMcAdamshasdemonstratedinhisbook,JudgingthePastinUnifiedGermany(2001),WestGermanpolicymakerssuchasformerchancellorHelmutKohlwantedtoclosepublicaccesstothefilesofEastGermany'ssecretpolice,theStasi,butpressuresfromEastGermandissidentspreventedthemfromdoingso. Anotherchallengeisthetensionbetweenpeaceandjustice,whicharisestheconflictinggoalsofachievingpeaceandjusticeintheaftermathofasociety’semergencefromconflict.Thoughitisgenerallyunanimousthatbothgoalsareintegraltoachievingreconciliation,practitionersoftendisagreeaboutwhichgoalshouldbepursuedfirst:justiceorpeace?[23]Proponentsofthe“justice”schoolofthoughtarguethatifallperpetratorsofhumanrightsabusesdonotstandtrial,impunityforcrimeswillcontinueintothenewregime,preventingitfromfullycompletingatransitionfromconflict.[24]The"peace"schoolofthought,however,arguesthattheonlywaytoeffectivelyendviolenceisbygrantingamnestiesandbrokeringnegotiationstopersuadecriminalstolaydowntheirarms.[1]ExamplessuchasNorthernIrelandillustratehowselectiveamnestiescanceaseconflict. Recenttrendsinthepost-conflictfieldhavetendedtofavorthe“justice”schoolofthought,maintainingthatonlyifjusticeisdutifullyservedtovictimsoftheconflictcancivilwarwillbepreventedfromrecurring.A2011debateinTheEconomistdeterminedinitsconcludingpollsthat76%ofthedebateparticipantsagreedwiththemotionthatachievingpeacecanoccuronlythroughimplementingjusticemechanisms.[2] Literaryapplications[edit] Literaryscholarsandhistorianshavebeguntousetheconceptoftransitionaljusticetoreexaminehistoricaleventsandtexts.ChristopherN.Warren,forinstance,hasappliedtransitionaljusticetopre-RestorationEngland,claimingthatithelpsexplainhowAnglicanroyalistsconvincedPresbyterianstoassenttoarestorationofthemonarchy.[25]WarrenalsoarguesthatEnglishpoetJohnMilton“canbeseenasanearlycriticoftransitionaljustice,”usingtheallegoryofSinandDeathinhisepicpoemParadiseLosttocomplicate“overly-rosy”depictionsoftransitionaljustice.[26] Futureagenda[edit] Althoughtransitionaljusticeisengulfedbymanycriticalchallengesinadditiontothedifficultyinmeasuringitsimpact,giventhenumberofotherfactorsinanygivencountry’sexperienceovertime,humanrightstrialsortruthcommissionsneednothaveanegativeeffectonhumanrightspractices.Thismakestransitionaljusticeviable,especiallyinthisageofstate-buildinganddemocracypromotioninpost-conflictsocieties.Infact,SikkinkandWalling’scomparisonofhumanrightsconditionsbeforeandaftertrialsinLatinAmericancountrieswithtwoormoretrialyearsshowedthatelevenofthefourteencountrieshadbetterPoliticalTerrorScale(PTS)ratingsaftertrials.LatinAmericancountriesthathadbothatruthcommissionandhumanrightstrialsimprovedmoreontheirPTSratingsthancountriesthatonlyhadtrials.Thesestatisticsindicatethattransitionaljusticemechanismsareassociatedwithcountries’improvingtheirhumanrightspractices.Eachstatethatemploystransitionaljusticemechanismswillhavetodeterminewhichmechanismstousetobestachievethetargetedgoals.Inordertoavoidcausingdisappointmentamongstvictims,thestateshouldalsoensurethatthepubliciswell-informedaboutthegoalsandlimitsofthosemechanisms. Transitionaljusticeshowsnosignsofdecreasinginuse.Indeed,theincorporationoftransitionaljusticepolicies,toolsandprogramsinpeacebuildinganddemocratizationprocessoperationsbytheUnitedNations(UN)andintheprogramsbymanylocalandinternationaldemocracypromotionorganizations,including,theStockholm-basedInternationalInstituteforElectoralAssistanceandDemocracy(InternationalIDEA)andahostofothersaswellastheestablishmentsofotherinternationalnon-governmentalorganizations(INGOs)andnetworkssuchastheInternationalCenterforTransitionalJustice(ICTJ),InstituteforJusticeandReconciliation(IJR-www.ijr.org.za)andtheAfricanTransitionalJusticeResearchNetwork(ATJRN)andresearchcentersliketheTransitionalJusticeInstitutearestrongmanifestationsofhowwellplacedtransitionaljusticehasbecomeafeatureinthediscourseoftransitionalpoliticsinthe21stcentury.AcademicpublicationssuchastheInternationalJournalofTransitionalJusticearealsocontributingtowardsbuildinganinterdisciplinaryfieldwiththehopethatfutureinnovationsaretailoredforaspecificstate’ssituationandwillcontributetowardspoliticaltransitionsthataddressthepastaswellasestablishguaranteesforrespectofhumanrightsanddemocracy. TheWorldBank's"2011WorldDevelopmentReportonConflict,Security,andDevelopment”linkstransitionaljusticetosecurityanddevelopment.[27]Itexploreshowcountriescanavoidcyclesofviolenceandemphasizestheimportanceoftransitionaljustice,arguingthatitisoneofthe“signalingmechanisms”thatgovernmentscanusetoshowthattheyarebreakingawayfrompastpractices.Italsoarguesthattransitionaljusticemeasurescansendsignalsabouttheimportanceofaccountabilityandtoimproveinstitutionalcapacity.[28] InSeptember2011,theInternationalCenterforTransitionalJustice(ICTJ)publishedareportadvocatingtheneedtounderstandtraditionaltransitionaljusticemeasuresfromachild'sperspective.Thereportidentifieschildrenasalargedemographictoooftenexcludedfromtraditionaltransitionaljusticemeasures.Inordertocorrectthisimbalance,anewchild-centeredperspectiveisneededtoincorporatechildrenintothelargerscopeoftransitionaljustice.[29] Majorcases[edit] Loayza–Tamayov.Peru,1998Inter-Am.Ct.H.R.(ser.C)No.42(November27,1998) GarridoandBaigorriav.Argentina,1998Inter-Am.Ct.H.R.(ser.C)No.39,72(August27,1998) MoiwanaCommunityv.Suriname,2005Inter-Am.Ct.H.R.(ser.C)No.124,100(June15,2005) Seealso[edit] InternationalCenterforTransitionalJustice InstituteforJusticeandReconciliation ConciliationResources Memorialization TransitionalJusticeInstitute Truth-seeking Universaljustice Vergangenheitsbewältigung PactofForgetting Restorativejustice References[edit] ^"WhatisTransitionalJustice?".InternationalCenterforTransitionalJustice.22February2011. ^Joshi,Yuvraj(2021)."RacialTransition".WashingtonUniversityLawReview.98(4):59.SSRN 3702718. ^"LustrationandTransitionalJustice|RomanDavid". ^ab"SustainablePeaceAfterMassAtrocities:TheCaseforTransitionalJustice".InternationalCenterforTransitionalJustice(ICTJ).January31,2019.RetrievedFebruary22,2019. ^"Whatistransitionaljustice"(PDF).www.un.org.February20,2008.RetrievedNovember2,2021. ^abcde"WhatisTransitionalJustice?",InternationalCenterforTransitionalJustice ^Joshi,Yuvraj(2020)."AffirmativeActionasTransitionalJustice".WisconsinLawReview.2020(1):49.SSRN 3465728. ^"CriminalJustice",InternationalCenterforTransitionalJustice ^"TransitionsJune2010:TransitionalJusticeNewsFromAroundtheWorld",InternationalCenterforTransitionalJustice ^http://pict-pcti.org/courts/hybrid.html ^"WheretoFromHereforInternationalTribunals?",CaitlinReiger,InternationalCenterforTransitionalJustice ^"ReparationsinTheoryandPractice",LisaMargarrell,InternationalCenterforTransitionalJustice ^ab"TruthandMemory",InternationalCenterforTransitionalJustice ^"TruthCommissions",InternationalCenterforTransitionalJustice ^"WeCan’tBeSureWhoKilledUs:MemoryandMemorializationinPost-conflictNorthernUganda",JulianHopwood,InternationalCenterforTransitionalJustice ^"InstitutionalReform",InternationalCenterforTransitionalJustice ^"VettingLessonsforthe2009-10ElectionsinAfghanistan",FatimaAyub,AntonellaDeledda,PatriciaGossman,InternationalCenterforTransitionalJustice ^"JusticeasPrevention:VettingPublicEmployeesinTransitionalSocieties",eds.PablodeGreiffandAlexanderMayer-Rieckh,InternationalCenterforTransitionalJustice ^Roman,David,LustrationandTransitionalJustice:PersonnelSystemsintheCzechRepublic,Hungary,andPoland.Philadelphia:UniversityofPennsylvaniaPress,2011. ^"Disarmament,Demobilization,andReintegration",InternationalCenterforTransitionalJustice ^"Tunisia'scourtsEmergeSlowlyfromShadowofBenAli",InternationalCenterforTransitionalJustice ^TenPrinciplesforReconcilingTruthCommissionsandCriminalProsecutions,inTheLegalRegimeoftheICC,Brill(2009)1071–1104. ^"Archivedcopy".Archivedfromtheoriginalon2012-01-04.Retrieved2012-01-02.{{citeweb}}:CS1maint:archivedcopyastitle(link) ^"Seductionsof"Sequencing"".18March2011. ^Warren,Christopher(2016).“ToRuintheRepairs:Milton,Allegory,TransitionalJustice.”Law,CultureandtheHumanities. ^Warren,Christopher(2016).“ToRuintheRepairs:Milton,Allegory,TransitionalJustice.”Law,CultureandtheHumanities.p.5,19. ^"HumanRightsandTransitionalJusticeinthe2011WorldDevelopmentReport",InternationalCenterforTransitionalJustice ^"Conflict,Security,andDevelopment"Archived2011-05-14attheWaybackMachine,WorldDevelopmentReport2011 ^"ThroughANewLens:AChild-SensitiveApproachtoTransitionalJustice","InternationalCenterforTransitionalJustice" Bibliography[edit] Aertsen,Ivo;Arsovska,Jana;Rohne,Holger-C.;et al.,eds.(2008).Restoringjusticeafterlarge-scaleviolentconflicts:Kosovo,DRCongoandtheIsraeli-Palestiniancase.WilliamPublishing.ISBN 978-1-84392-302-2. DanieleArchibugiandAlicePease,CrimeandGlobalJustice:TheDynamicsofInternationalPunishment,Cambridge:PolityPress,2018.ISBN 978-1509512621 Brechtken,Magnus;Bułhak,Władysław;Zarusky,Jürgen,eds.(2019):PoliticalandtransitionaljusticeinGermany,PolandandtheSovietUnionfromthe1930stothe1950s.Göttingen:WallsteinGöttingen,2019(online). Cobban,Helena(2007).AMNESTYAFTERATROCITY:HealingNationsafterGenocideandWarCrimes.Boulder,CO:ParadigmPublishers.ISBN 978-1-59451-316-9.Thefinalchapterofthisbookisavailableonlineat"RestoringPeacemaking,RevaluingHistory".Retrieved2008-01-01. RomanDavid,LustrationandTransitionalJustice,Philadelphia:PennsylvaniaUniversityPress,2011. Kritz,Neil,ed.(1995).TransitionalJustice:HowEmergingDemocraciesReckonwithFormerRegimes,Vols.I–III.Washington,D.C.:U.S.InstituteofPeacePress. McAdams,A.James(2001)."JudgingthePastinUnifiedGermany."NewYork,NY:CambridgeUniversityPress. Martin,Arnaud,ed.(2009).Lamémoireetlepardon.LescommissionsdelavéritéetdelaréconciliationenAmériquelatine.Paris:L'Harmattan. Mendez,JuanE.(1997)."AccountabilityforPastAbuses."HumanRightsQuarterly19:255. Mouralis,Guillaume(2014)."TheInventionof“TransitionalJustice”inthe1990s".InDealingwithWarsandDictatorships,ed.LioraIsraëlandGuillaumeMouralis,TheHague:Springer/AsserPress,pp83-100. Nino,CarlosS.(1996).RadicalEvilonTrial.NewHaven,Conn.:YaleUniversityPress. Osiel,MarkJ.(1997).MassAtrocity,CollectiveMemory,andtheLaw.NewBrunswick,N.J.:TransactionPublishers. LaviniaStan,ed.,TransitionalJusticeinEasternEuropeandtheFormerSovietUnion:ReckoningwiththeCommunistPast,London:Routledge,2009. RutiTeitel,"TransitionalJustice",OxfordUniversityPress,2000. Zalaquett,Jose(1993)."IntroductiontotheEnglishEdition."InChileanNationalCommissiononTruthandReconciliation:ReportoftheChileanNationalCommissiononTruthandReconciliation,trans.PhillipE.Berryman.SouthBend,Ind.:UniversityofNotreDamePress. Murithi,Tim(2016).ThePoliticsofTransitionalJusticeintheGreatLakesRegion.Johannesburg:JacanaMedia. Omondi,Elias&TimMurithi(2022).Elections,ViolenceandTransitionalJusticeinAfrica.London:Routledge. Externallinks[edit] UnitedNationsRuleofLaw:TransitionalJustice,ontherelationshipbetweentransitionaljustice,theruleoflawandtheUnitedNations. FurtherresourcesontransitionaljusticecanbefoundattheInternationalCenterforTransitionalJustice(ICTJ)webpage. FurtherresourcesontransitionaljusticecanbefoundontheGovernanceandSocialDevelopmentResourceCentre'sTopicguideontransitionaljustice [3] vteTruthcommissionsCountry Argentina Bangladesh Bolivia Brazil Canada Chad Colombia DemocraticRepublicoftheCongo Chile 1990–1991 2003–2011 Ecuador ElSalvador Fiji Germany Ghana Guatemala Haiti Kenya Liberia Mauritius Moroccan Nepal Panama Peru Philippines Rwanda SierraLeone SolomonIslands SouthAfrica SouthKorea SriLanka Taiwan Timor-Leste(EastTimor) 2001–2005 2005–2008 Tunisia Ukraine UnitedStatesofAmerica Yugoslavia(FederalRepublicof) Relatedconcepts Righttotruth Transitionaljustice Authoritycontrol:Nationallibraries Germany Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transitional_justice&oldid=1092842718" Categories:TransitionaljusticeHumanrightsInternationallawPhilosophyoflawReconciliationPeacemechanismsHiddencategories:CS1maint:archivedcopyastitleWebarchivetemplatewaybacklinksArticleswithshortdescriptionShortdescriptionisdifferentfromWikidataAllarticlesthatmaycontainoriginalresearchArticlesthatmaycontainoriginalresearchfromSeptember2015ArticleswithGNDidentifiers Navigationmenu Personaltools NotloggedinTalkContributionsCreateaccountLogin Namespaces ArticleTalk English Views ReadEditViewhistory More Search Navigation MainpageContentsCurrenteventsRandomarticleAboutWikipediaContactusDonate Contribute HelpLearntoeditCommunityportalRecentchangesUploadfile Tools WhatlinkshereRelatedchangesUploadfileSpecialpagesPermanentlinkPageinformationCitethispageWikidataitem Print/export DownloadasPDFPrintableversion Inotherprojects WikimediaCommons Languages العربيةDeutschEspañolفارسیFrançaisՀայերենעבריתქართული日本語PortuguêsРусскийСрпски/srpskiไทยTürkçe中文 Editlinks