Popularity - Wikipedia

In sociology, popularity is how much a person, idea, place, item or other concept is either liked or accorded status by other people. Popularity FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Conceptinsociology Forthe2006indiealbum,seePopularity(album). "Likable"redirectshere.ForthesongbyToshinoriYonekura,seeLikable(song). PartofaseriesonSociology History Outline Index Keythemes Society Globalization Humanbehavior Humanenvironmentalimpact Identity Industrialrevolutions3&4 Socialcomplexity Socialconstruct Socialenvironment Socialequality Socialequity Socialpower Socialstratification Socialstructure Perspectives Conflicttheory Criticaltheory Structuralfunctionalism Positivism Socialconstructionism Symbolicinteractionism Branches Aging Architecture Art Astrosociology Body Criminology Consciousness Culture Death Demography Deviance Disaster Economic Education Emotion(Jealousy) Environmental Family Feminist Fiscal Food Gender Generations Health Historical Immigration Industrial Internet Jewry Knowledge Language Law Leisure Literature Marxist Mathematic Medical Military Music Peace,war,andsocialconflict Philosophy Political Public Punishment Raceandethnicity Religion Rural Science(Historyofscience) Socialmovements Socialpsychology Sociocybernetics Sociology Space Sport Technology Terrorism Urban Utopian Victimology Visual Methods Quantitative Qualitative Comparative Computational Ethnographic Conversationanalysis Historical Interview Mathematical Networkanalysis Socialexperiment Survey PeopleEastAsia 1900s FeiXiaotong SouthAsia 1800s G.SGhurye 1900s IrawatiKarve M.N.Srinivas MiddleEast 1400s IbnKhaldun Europe 1700s AugusteComte EmmanuelJosephSieyès 1800s ÉmileDurkheim HarrietMartineau KarlMarx GeorgSimmel HerbertSpencer FerdinandTönnies MaxWeber 1900s MichelFoucault JürgenHabermas NorthAmerica 1800s JaneAddams ErnestBurgess W.E.B.DuBois GeorgeHerbertMead ThorsteinVeblen 1900s JamesColeman PatriciaHillCollins ErvingGoffman PaulLazarsfeld CharlesWrightMills RobertK.Merton ThedaSkocpol DorothyE.Smith Lists Bibliography Terminology Journals Organizations People Timeline Bycountry  Societyportal WikiProjectSociologyvte Insociology,popularityishowmuchaperson,idea,place,itemorotherconceptiseitherlikedoraccordedstatus[1]byotherpeople.Likingcanbeduetoreciprocalliking,interpersonalattraction,andsimilarfactors.Socialstatuscanbeduetodominance,superiority,andsimilarfactors.Forexample,akindpersonmaybeconsideredlikableandthereforemorepopularthananotherperson,andawealthypersonmaybeconsideredsuperiorandthereforemorepopularthananotherperson. Therearetwoprimarytypesofinterpersonalpopularity:perceivedandsociometric.Perceivedpopularityismeasuredbyaskingpeoplewhothemostpopularorsociallyimportantpeopleintheirsocialgroup[2]are.Sociometricpopularityismeasuredbyobjectivelymeasuringthenumberofconnectionsapersonhastoothersinthegroup.[3]Apersoncanhavehighperceivedpopularitywithouthavinghighsociometricpopularity,andviceversa. AccordingtopsychologistTessaLansuattheRadboudUniversityNijmegen,"Popularity[has]todowithbeingthemiddlepointofagroupandhavinginfluenceonit."[4] Contents 1Introduction 2Typesofinterpersonalpopularity 2.1Sociometricpopularityorlikeability 2.2Perceivedpopularityorsocialstatus 3Comprehensivetheories 3.1"PopularityExplained" 3.1.1Conceptualfoundations 3.1.2Three-factormodel 4Interpersonalcauses 4.1Attractiveness 4.2Aggression 4.2.1Relationalaggression 4.2.2Overtaggression 4.3Culturalfactors 4.4Demographicdifferences 4.4.1Maturity 4.4.2Gender 4.4.3Race 5Effectsofpopularityintheworkplace 5.1Importance 5.2Benefits 5.3Contributingfactors 5.4Leadershippopularity 6Thepopularityofobjectsasaconsequenceofsocialinfluence 6.1Informationcascades 6.2Zipf'sLaw 7Seealso 8References 9Furtherreading Introduction[edit] Fromthe1917silentfilmRebeccaofSunnybrookFarm,thisimageshowsonegirlbehavingwithovertaggressiontowardsanothergirl. ThetermpopularityisborrowedfromtheLatintermpopularis,whichoriginallymeant"common."Thecurrentdefinitionofthewordpopular,the"factorconditionofbeingwelllikedbythepeople",wasfirstseenin1601.[5] Whilepopularityisatraitoftenascribedtoanindividual,itisaninherentlysocialphenomenonandthuscanonlybeunderstoodinthecontextofgroupsofpeople.Popularityisacollectiveperception,andindividualsreporttheconsensusofagroup'sfeelingstowardsanindividualorobjectwhenratingpopularity.Ittakesagroupofpeopletolikesomething,sothemorethatpeopleadvocateforsomethingorclaimthatsomeoneisbestliked,themoreattentionitwillget,andthemorepopularitwillbedeemed.[6] Notwithstandingtheabove,popularityasaconceptcanbeapplied,assigned,ordirectedtowardsobjectssuchassongs,movies,websites,activities,soaps,foodsetc.Together,theseobjectscollectivelymakeuppopularculture,ortheconsensusofmainstreampreferencesinsociety.Inessence,anything,humanornon-human,canbedeemedpopular. Typesofinterpersonalpopularity[edit] Formanyyears,popularityresearchfocusedonadefinitionofpopularitythatwasbasedonbeing"wellliked."Eventually,itwasdiscoveredthatthosewhoareperceivedaspopulararenotnecessarilythemostwelllikedasoriginallyassumed.Whenstudentsaregiventheopportunitytofreelyelectthosetheylikemostandthosetheyperceiveaspopular,adiscrepancyoftenemerges.[7]Thisisevidencethattherearetwomainformsofpersonalpopularitythatsocialpsychologyrecognizes,sociometricpopularityandperceivedpopularity.[8]Prinsteindistinguishesbetweenthetwotypesaslikeabilityvs.socialstatus.[9] Sociometricpopularityorlikeability[edit] Sociometricpopularitycanbedefinedbyhowlikedanindividualis.Thislikingiscorrelatedwithprosocialbehaviours.Thosewhoactinprosocialwaysarelikelytobedeemedsociometricallypopular.Oftentheyareknownfortheirinterpersonalabilities,theirempathyforothers,andtheirwillingnesstocooperatenon-aggressively.[10]Thisisamoreprivatejudgement,characterizedbylikability,thatwillnotgenerallybesharedinagroupsetting.Often,itisimpossibletoknowwhomindividualsfindpopularonthisscaleunlessconfidentialityisensured.[7] Perceivedpopularityorsocialstatus[edit] Perceivedpopularityisusedtodescribethoseindividualswhoareknownamongtheirpeersasbeingpopular.Unlikesociometricpopularity,perceivedpopularityisoftenassociatedwithaggressionanddominanceandisnotdependentonprosocialbehaviors.Thisformofpopularityisoftenexploredbythepopularmedia.NotableworksdealingwithperceivedpopularityincludeMeanGirls,OddGirlOut,andFerrisBueller'sDayOff.Individualswhohaveperceivedpopularityareoftenhighlysociallyvisibleandfrequentlyemulatedbutrarelyliked.[8]Sinceperceivedpopularityisameasureofvisiblereputationandemulation,thisformofpopularityismostopenlydiscussed,agreeduponwithinagroup,andwhatmostpeoplerefertowhentheycallsomeonepopular.[7] Comprehensivetheories[edit] Todate,onlyonecomprehensivetheoryofinterpersonalpopularityhasbeenproposed:thatofA.L.FreedmaninthebookPopularityExplained.The3FactorModelproposedattemptstoreconcilethetwoconceptsofsociometricandperceivedpopularitybycombiningthemorthogonallyandprovidingdistinctdefinitionsforeach.Indoingso,itreconcilesthecounterintuitivefactthatlikingdoesnotguaranteeperceivedpopularitynordoesperceivedpopularityguaranteebeingwellliked. "PopularityExplained"[edit] PopularityExplainedwasfirstpublishedasablogbeforebeingconvertedtoabookandvariousversionshavebeenavailableonlinesince2013. Conceptualfoundations[edit] TherearefourprimaryconceptsthatPopularityExplainedrelieson. Likingandattractionarenotthesame.Theinterpersonalfeelingof"liking"isnotthesameas"attraction"andthatbothareresponsiblefordifferenthumanbehaviours.TheneurologicalevidenceofthiscomesfromtheresearchofKentC.Berridgeandhisincentivesaliencemodel.PopularityExplainedextrapolatestheconclusionsofthisresearchandappliesittohuman-humaninterpersonalinteractions. Ahierarchyofinterpersonalattractionexistsinallsocialgroups.PopularityExplaineddevelopsaverybroaddefinitionofinterpersonalattractionassertingthatitisbasedonamultitudeofdifferentfactorsbutprimarilythoseof:socioeconomicstatus;interpersonalsimilarity;physicalappearance;andefficacy.Itproposestheconceptofa"HierarchyofAttraction"which,insimpleterms,isjustastylizedbellcurvethatillustrateshowattractivepeoplearerelativetoeachotherintermsofapercentile. Interpersonalattraction(inthebroadestsense)resultsinInputofEnergy.InputofEnergyistheinterpersonalactionsthatanindividualtakes,consciouslyandunconsciously,whentheyexperienceaninterpersonalattraction.ExamplesofInputofEnergygiveninthebookinclude:attemptsatphysicalproximity;changesinverbalcommunications;changestonon-verbalcommunication;biasedinterpersonaljudgments;cognitiveintrusion;andhelpingbehaviour. Sociometricandperceivedpopularityarecorrelatedbutnotequivalent.Bycombiningthesetwoconcepts,PopularityExplaineddefineseightprototypicalstudenttypesthatcanbeplottedonthesinglegraph. Three-factormodel[edit] AccordingtoFreedman,anindividual'splaceinthesociallandscapeisdeterminedbyacombinationofthreefactors:whattheyare;whotheyare;andthesituation. Whatreferstoallthoseaspectsofapersonthatareobjective:participationinsports,physicalappearance,etc.Perceivedpopularityisprimarilytheresultofwhatapersonis.ItismediatedbyInputofEnergycombiningwiththeHierarchyofAttraction.ThispreferentialreceiptofInputofEnergybyaselectfewiswhatpropelsthemtothe"popular"sideofthegraphthatcombinessociometricandperceivedpopularity. Whoreferstothepersonalityoftheindividualandhowtheytreatotherpeople.Itisthisfactorthatisresponsiblefordeterminingwhereastudentsitsalongthe"liking"and"disliking"dimensionsthatcharacterizeastudent.Themorepro-socialanindividual,themoretheywillbeliked. TheSituationreferstothecircumstancesthatanindividualfindsthemselfin.[11][12]Differentcircumstancesmayresultindifferentsocialoutcomes.Forexample,thesamestudentmaybeperceivedaspopularwheninthesocialcontextoftheirchurchyouthgroupbutunpopularwithinthesocialcontextoftheirschoolasawhole. Interpersonalcauses[edit] "Popularity"artworkfeaturedinEastTexasStateNormalCollege's1922Locustyearbook Oneofthemostwidelyagreedupontheoriesaboutwhatleadstoanincreasedlevelofpopularityforanindividualistheperceivedvaluewhichthatindividualbringstothegroup.[13]Thisseemstobetrueformembersofallgroups,butisespeciallydemonstrableingroupsthatexistforaspecificpurpose.Forexample,sportsteamsexistwiththegoalofbeingsuccessfulincompetitionsagainstothersportsteams.Studygroupsexistsothatthemembersofthegroupcanmutuallybenefitfromoneanother'sacademicknowledge.Inthesesituations,leadersoftenemergebecauseothermembersofthegroupperceivethemasaddingalotofvaluetothegroupasawhole.Onasportsteam,thismeansthatthebestplayersareusuallyelectedcaptainandinstudygroupspeoplemightbemoreinclinedtolikeanindividualwhohasalotofknowledgetoshare.[10]Ithasbeenarguedthatthismaybearesultofourevolutionarytendenciestofavorindividualswhoaremostlikelytoaidinourownsurvival.[14] Itisalsoofnotethattheactualvaluewhichanindividualbringstoagroupisnotofconsequenceindetermininghisorherpopularity;theonlythingthatisimportantishisorhervalueasperceivedbytheothermembersofthegroup.Whileperceivedvalueandactualvaluemayoftenoverlap,thisisnotarequisiteandithasbeenshownthatthereareinstancesinwhichanindividual'sactualvalueisrelativelylow,buttheyareperceivedashighlyvaluablenevertheless.[15] Attractiveness[edit] Attractiveness,specificallyphysicalattractiveness,hasbeenshowntohaveveryprofoundeffectsonpopularity.[16]Peoplewhoarephysicallyattractivearemorelikelytobethoughtofaspossessingpositivetraits.Peoplewhoareattractiveareexpectedtoperformbetterontasksandaremorelikelytobetrusted.[15]Additionally,theyarejudgedtopossessmanyotherpositivetraitssuchasmentalhealth,intelligence,socialawareness,anddominance.[17] Additionally,peoplewhoareofaboveaverageattractivenessareassumedtoalsobeofaboveaveragevaluetothegroup.Researchshowsthatattractivepeopleareoftenperceivedtohavemanypositivetraitsbasedonnothingotherthantheirlooks,regardlessofhowaccuratetheseperceptionsare.[18]ThisphenomenonisknownastheHaloeffect[15]Thismeansthat,inadditiontobeingmorewell-liked,attractivepeoplearemorelikelytobeseenasbringingactualvaluetothegroup,evenwhentheymaybeoflittleornovalueatall.Inessence,physicallyattractivepeoplearegiventhebenefitofthedoubtwhilelessattractiveindividualsmustprovethattheyarebringingvaluetothegroup.[10]Ithasbeenshownempiricallythatbeingphysicallyattractiveiscorrelatedwithbothsociometricandperceivedpopularity.Somepossibleexplanationsforthisincludeincreasedsocialvisibilityandanincreasedleveloftoleranceforaggressive,socialinteractionsthatmayincreaseperceivedpopularity.[10] Aggression[edit] Thedegreetowhichanindividualisperceivedaspopularisoftenhighlycorrelatedwiththelevelofaggressionwithwhichthatindividualinteractswithhisorherpeers.Therearetwomaincategoriesofaggression,relationalandovert,bothofwhichhavevaryingconsequencesforpopularitydependingonseveralfactors,suchasthegenderandattractivenessoftheaggressor.[19] Therelationshipalsodependsonculture.PrinsteinnotesthatstudieshavefoundthatincreasedaggressiontendstocorrelatewithhighersocialstatusintheUnitedStates,butlowersocialstatusinChina.[9] Relationalaggression[edit] Relationalaggressionisnonviolentaggressionthatisemotionallydamagingtoanotherindividual.Examplesofrelationallyaggressiveactivitiesincludeignoringorexcludinganindividualfromagroup,deliveringpersonalinsultstoanotherperson,andthespreadingofrumors.Relationalaggressionismorefrequentlyusedbyfemalesthanmales.[10] Ithasbeenfoundthatrelationalaggressionalmostalwayshasastronglynegativerelationshipwithsociometricpopularitybutcanhaveapositiverelationshipwithperceivedpopularitydependingontheperceivedlevelofattractivenessoftheaggressor.Foranaggressorwhoisperceivedasunattractive,relationalaggression,bybothmalesandfemales,leadstolessperceivedpopularity.Foranattractiveaggressorhowever,relationalaggressionhasbeenfoundtoactuallyhaveapositiverelationshipwithperceivedpopularity.[10] Therelationshipbetweenattractivenessandaggressionisfurtherintertwinedbythefindingthatincreasedlevelsofphysicalattractivenessactuallyfurtherdecreasedthesociometricpopularityofrelationallyaggressiveindividuals.[10] Inshort,themorephysicallyattractiveanindividualis,themorelikelytheyaretoexperiencedecreasedlevelsofsociometricpopularitybutincreasedlevelsofperceivedpopularityforengaginginrelationallyaggressiveactivities. Overtaggression[edit] Overtaggressionisaggressionthatinvolvesindividualsphysicallyinteractingwitheachotherinactssuchaspushing,hitting,kickingorotherwisecausingphysicalharmorsubmissionintheotherperson.Thisincludesthreatsofviolenceandphysicalintimidationaswell. Ithasbeenshownthatovertaggressiondirectlyleadstoperceivedpopularitywhentheaggressorisattractive.[8]Experimentsthatarecontrolledforlevelsofphysicalattractivenessshowthatindividualswhoareattractiveandovertlyaggressivehaveahigherdegreeofperceivedpopularitythanattractivenon-overtlyaggressiveindividuals.Thiswasfoundtobetruetoasmalldegreeforfemalesandalargedegreeformales.[10] Attractiveindividualswhoareovertlyaggressivebarelysufferanyconsequencesintermsofsociometricpopularity.Thisisakeydifferencebetweenovertandrelationalaggressionbecauserelationalaggressionhasastronglynegativerelationshiponsociometricpopularity,especiallyforattractiveindividuals.Forunattractiveindividuals,thereisagainastronglynegativerelationshipbetweenovertaggressionandsociometricpopularity.[10]Thismeansthatattractiveindividualsstandtogainalotofperceivedpopularityatthecostofverylittlesociometricpopularitybybeingovertlyaggressivewhileunattractiveindividualsstandtogainverylittleperceivedpopularityfromactsofovertaggressionbutwillbeheavilypenalizedwithregardstosociometricpopularity. Culturalfactors[edit] AccordingtoTalcottParsons,asrewrittenbyFonsTrompenaars,therearefourmaintypesofculture,[20]markedby: love/hate(MiddleEast,Mediterranean,LatinAmerica); approval/criticism(UnitedKingdom,Canada,Scandinavia,Germaniccountries); esteem/contempt(Japan,EasternAsia);and responsiveness/rejection(theUnitedStates). Onlytheresponsiveness/rejectioncultureresultsinteenagersactivelytryingtobecomepopular.ThereisnoeffortforpopularityinNorthernorSouthernEurope,LatinAmericaorAsia.ThisemotionalbondingisspecificforthehighschoolsintheUnitedStates.Inthelove/hatecultures,thefamilyandclosefriendsaremoreimportantthanpopularity.Intheapproval/criticismcultures,actionsaremoreimportantthanpersons,sonostronglinksdevelopduringschool. Demographicdifferences[edit] Maturity[edit] Popularityisgaugedprimarilythroughsocialstatus.Becauseoftheimportanceofsocialstatus,peersplaytheprimaryroleinsocialdecisionmakingsothatindividualscanincreasethechancesthatotherslikethem.However,aschildren,individualstendtodothisthroughfriendship,academics,andinterpersonalconduct.[21]Byadulthood,workandromanticrelationshipsbecomemuchmoreimportant.Thispeerfunctioningandgainingpopularityisakeyplayerinincreasinginterestinsocialnetworksandgroupsintheworkplace.Tosucceedinsuchaworkenvironment,adultsthenplacepopularityasahigherprioritythananyothergoal,evenromance.[7] Gender[edit] Thesetwotypesofpopularity,perceivedpopularityandsociometricpopularity,aremorecorrelatedforgirlsthantheyareforboys.However,itissaidthatmencanpossessthesequalitiestoalargerextent,makingthemmorelikelytobealeader,morepowerful,andmorecentralinagroup,butalsomorelikelythanwomentobesociallyexcluded.[7]Boystendtobecomepopularbasedonathleticability,coolness,toughness,andinterpersonalskills;however,themorepopularaboygets,theworsehetendstodoonhisacademicwork.Ontheotherhand,thisnegativeviewofacademicsisnotseenatallinpopulargirls,whogainpopularitybasedonfamilybackground(primarilysocioeconomicstatus),physicalappearance,andsocialability.Boysarealsoknowntobemorecompetitiveandrulefocused,whereasgirlshavemoreemotionalintimacy.[21] Race[edit] Insomeinstances,ithasbeenfoundthatinpredominantlywhitehighschools,attractivenon-whitestudentsareonaveragesignificantlymoresociometricallypopularthanequallyattractivewhitestudents.Onetheorythathasbeenputforthtoexplainthisphenomenonisahighdegreeofgroupcohesivenessamongminoritystudentscomparedwiththerelativelackofcohesionamongstmembersofthemajority.Sincethereismorecohesion,thereismoreavailabilityforonepersontobelikedbymanysincetheyareallincontact.ThisactslikeZipf'sLaw,wherethecohesionisaconfoundingfactorthatforcesthegreaterlinksinthesmallerminority,causingthemtobemorenoticedandthusmorepopular.[22]Whenconsideringraceasapredictorforperceivedpopularitybyaskingaclasshowpopularandimportanteachotherpersonis,AfricanAmericanstudentswereratedmostpopularbytheirpeers.Popularityinracewasfoundtobecorrelatedwithathleticism,andbecauseAfricanAmericanshaveastereotypeofbeingbetteratsportsthanindividualsofotherraces,theyareviewedasmorepopular.Additionally,WhiteandHispanicchildrenwereratedasmorepopularthebettertheysucceededinschoolandcamefromahighersocioeconomicbackground.Nosinglefactorcanexplainpopularity,butinsteadtheinteractionbetweenmanyfactorssuchasraceandathleticismvs.academics.[23] Effectsofpopularityintheworkplace[edit] Importance[edit] Moretasksintheworkplacearebeingdoneinteams,leadingtoagreaterneedofpeopletoseekandfeelsocialapproval.[6]Inacademicsettings,ahighsocialstandingamongpeersisassociatedwithpositiveacademicoutcomes.[24][25]Popularityalsoleadstostudentsinacademicenvironmentstoreceivemorehelp,havemorepositiverelationshipsandstereotypes,andbemoreapproachedbypeers.[6]Whilethisistheresearchfoundinschools,itislikelytobegeneralizedtoaworkplace. Benefits[edit] Popularityispositivelylinkedtojobsatisfaction,individualjobperformance,andgroupperformance.[6]Thepopularworker,besidesjustfeelingmoresatisfiedwithhisjob,feelsmoresecure,believeshehasbetterworkingconditions,trustshissupervisor,andpossessesmorepositiveopportunitiesforcommunicationwithbothmanagementandco-workers,causingagreaterfeelingofresponsibilityandbelongingnessatwork.[26]Othersprefertoworkwithpopularindividuals,mostnotablyinmanuallaborjobsbecause,althoughtheymightnotbethemostknowledgeableforthejob,theyareapproachable,willingtohelp,cooperativeingroupwork,andaremorelikelytotreattheircoworkersasanequal.Ifanemployeefeelsgood-natured,genial,butnotoverlyindependent,morepeoplewillsaythattheymostprefertoworkwiththatemployee.[27] Contributingfactors[edit] Accordingtothemere-exposureeffect,employeesinmorecentralpositionsthatmustrelatetomanyothersthroughouttheday,suchasamanager,aremorelikelytobeconsideredpopular.[6] Therearemanycharacteristicsthatcontributetopopularity:[28] Expressingandactingingenuineways–otherswillturnawayiftheycandetectthatsomeoneisbeingfaketothem Focusingonpositiveenergy–otherswillfeeltoodrainedtobearoundsomeoneiftheirinteractionsarenotstartedonapositivenoteortheydon'thaveempathytoshareinsomeoneelse'spositivenews Treatingotherswithrespect–othersdonotliketobearoundsomeoneiftheyaren'ttreatedequallyandacknowledgedfortheirhardwork Createconnections–othersaremorelikelytoapproachindividualstheyhavestrongrelationshipswith;thesecanbebuiltbytalkingaboutmorepersonalissues,attendingworkgatherings,andcommunicatingoutsidetheofficewalls Patience–turningawaytooquicklyignoresthatrelationshipstaketimetogrow,especiallyinthebusyandstressfulenvironmentsthatworkofteninduces Incorporatingothers–othersfeelasenseoftrustandbelongingnesswhentheyareaskedforhelponaproject[27] Hands-onorservantleader–Itsapersonthatwilldotheworkbeforeanyoneelse,bethefirsttodothelessdesirablejobs,andhaveapositiveattitudeaboutit. Leadershippopularity[edit] Withagreaterfocusongroupsintheworkplace,itisessentialthatleaderseffectivelydealwithandmediategroupstoavoidclashing.Sometimesaleaderdoesnotneedtobepopulartobeeffective,butthereareafewcharacteristicsthatcanhelpaleaderbemoreacceptedandbetterlikedbyhisgroup.Withoutgrouporteamcohesiveness,thereisnocorrelationbetweenleadershipandpopularity;however,whenagroupiscohesive,thehigherupsomeoneisintheleadershiphierarchy,themorepopulartheyarefortworeasons.[29]First,acohesivegroupfeelsmorepersonalresponsibilityfortheirwork,thusplacingmorevalueonbetterperformance.Cohesivemembersseeleadersastakingabulkoftheworkandinvestingalotofpersonaltime,sowhentheyseeajob'svaluetheycanascribeitssuccesstotheleader.Thisgreatestcontributionprincipleisperceivedasagreatassettotheteam,andmembersviewtheleadermorefavorablyandhegainspopularity.[29]Secondly,cohesivegroupshavewellestablishedgroupvalues.Leaderscanbecomemorepopularinthesegroupsbyrealizingandactingondominantgroupvalues.Supportinggroupmoralsandstandardsleadstohighpositivevaluationfromthegroup,leadingtopopularity.[30] Thepopularityofobjectsasaconsequenceofsocialinfluence[edit] Informationcascades[edit] Popularityisatermwidelyapplicabletothemodernerathanksprimarilytosocialnetworkingtechnology.Being"liked"hasbeentakentoacompletelydifferentlevelonubiquitoussitessuchasFacebook. Popularityisasocialphenomenonbutitcanalsobeascribedtoobjectsthatpeopleinteractwith.Collectiveattentionistheonlywaytomakesomethingpopular,andinformationcascadesplayalargeroleinrapidrisesinsomething'spopularity.[31][32]Rankingsforthingsinpopularculture,likemoviesandmusic,oftendonotreflectthepublic'staste,butratherthetasteofthefirstfewbuyersbecausesocialinfluenceplaysalargeroleindeterminingwhatispopularandwhatisnotthroughaninformationcascade. Informationcascadeshavestronginfluencecausingindividualstoimitatetheactionsofothers,whetherornottheyareinagreement.Forexample,whendownloadingmusic,peopledon'tdecide100%independentlywhichsongstobuy.Oftentheyareinfluencedbychartsdepictingwhichsongsarealreadytrending.Sincepeoplerelyonwhatthosebeforethemdo,onecanmanipulatewhatbecomespopularamongthepublicbymanipulatingawebsite'sdownloadrankings.[33]Expertspaidtopredictsalesoftenfailbutnotbecausetheyarebadattheirjobs;instead,itisbecausetheycannotcontroltheinformationcascadethatensuesafterfirstexposurebyconsumers.Musicisagain,anexcellentexample.Goodsongsrarelyperformpoorlyonthechartsandpoorsongsrarelyperformverywell,butthereistremendousvariancethatstillmakespredictingthepopularityofanyonesongverydifficult.[34] Expertscandetermineifaproductwillsellinthetop50%ofrelatedproductsornot,butitisdifficulttobemorespecificthanthat.Duetothestrongimpactthatinfluenceplays,thisevidenceemphasizestheneedformarketers.Theyhaveasignificantopportunitytoshowtheirproductsinthebestlight,withthemostfamouspeople,orbeinginthemediamostoften.Suchconstantexposureisawayofgainingmoreproductfollowers.Marketerscanoftenmakethedifferencebetweenanaverageproductandapopularproduct.However,sincepopularityisprimarilyconstructedasageneralconsensusofagroup'sattitudetowardssomething,word-of-mouthisamoreeffectivewaytoattractnewattention.Websitesandblogsstartbyrecommendationsfromonefriendtoanother,astheymovethroughsocialnetworkingservices.Eventually,whenthefadislargeenough,themediacatchesontothecraze.Thisspreadingbyword-of-mouthisthesocialinformationcascadethatallowssomethingtogrowinusageandattentionthroughoutasocialgroupuntileveryoneistellingeveryoneelseaboutit,atwhichpointitisdeemedpopular.[35] Individualsalsorelyonwhatotherssaywhentheyknowthattheinformationtheyaregivencouldbecompletelyincorrect.Thisisknownasgroupthink.Relyingonotherstoinfluenceone'sowndecisionsisaverypowerfulsocialinfluence,butcanhavenegativeimpacts.[36] Zipf'sLaw[edit] ThepopularityofFacebookovertimeillustratingZipf'sLaw ThepopularityofmanydifferentthingscanbedescribedbyZipf'spowerlaw,whichpositsthatthereisalowfrequencyofverylargequantitiesandahighfrequencyoflowquantities.Thisillustratespopularityofmanydifferentobjects. Forexample,therearefewverypopularwebsites,butmanywebsiteshavesmallfollowings.Thisistheresultofinterest;asmanypeopleusee-mail,itiscommonforsiteslikeYahoo!tobeaccessedbylargenumbersofpeople;however,asmallsubsetofpeoplewouldbeinterestedinablogonaparticularvideogame.Inthissituation,onlyYahoo!wouldbedeemedapopularsitebythepublic.[37]Thiscanadditionallybeseeninsocialnetworkingservices,suchasFacebook.Themajorityofpeoplehaveabout130friends,whileveryfewpeoplehavelargersocialnetworks.However,someindividualsdohavemorethan5,000friends.Thisreflectsthatveryfewpeoplecanbeextremelywell-connected,butmanypeoplearesomewhatconnected.Thenumberoffriendsapersonhas,hasbeenawaytodeterminehowpopularanindividualis,sothesmallnumberofpeoplewhohaveanextremelyhighnumberoffriendsisawayofusingsocialnetworkingservices,likeFacebook,toillustratehowonlyafewpeoplearedeemedpopular.[38] Popularpeoplemaynotbethosewhoarebestlikedinterpersonallybytheirpeers,buttheydoreceivemostofthepositivebehaviorfromcoworkerswhencomparedtononpopularworkers.[6]Thisisaresultofthedifferencesbetweensociometricandperceivedpopularity.Whenaskedwhoismostpopular,employeestypicallyrespondbasedonperceivedpopularity;however,theyreallypreferthesocialinteractionswiththosewhoaremoresociometricallypopular.Foreachindividualtoensurethattheyareconsistentwiththegroup'spopularityconsensus,thosewhoarehighinperceivedpopularityaretreatedwiththesamepositivebehaviorsasthosewhoaremoreinterpersonally,butprivately,likedbyspecificindividuals.Well-likedworkersaremostlikelytogetsalaryincreasesandpromotions,whiledisliked(unpopular)workersarethefirsttogettheirsalarycutbackorlaidoffduringrecessions.[citationneeded] Duringinteractionswithothersintheworkenvironment,morepopularindividualsreceivemoreorganizationalcitizenshipbehavior(helpingandcourteousnessfromothers)andlesscounterproductiveworkbehavior(rudereactionsandwithheldinformation)thanthosewhoareconsideredlesspopularintheworkplace.[6]Coworkersagreewitheachotheronwhoisandwhoisnotpopularand,asagroup,treatpopularcoworkersmorefavorably.Whilepopularityhasproventobeabigdeterminerofgettingmorepositivefeedbackandinteractionsfromcoworkers,suchaqualitymatterslessinorganizationswhereworkloadsandinterdependenceishigh,suchasthemedicalfield.[6] Inmanyinstances,physicalappearancehasbeenusedasoneindicatorofpopularity.Attractivenessplaysalargeroleintheworkplaceandphysicalappearanceinfluenceshiring,whetherornotthejobmightbenefitfromit.Forexample,somejobs,suchassalesperson,benefitfromattractivenesswhenitcomesdowntothebottomline,buttherehavebeenmanystudieswhichhaveshownthat,ingeneral,attractivenessisnotatallavalidpredictorofon-the-jobperformance.[39]ManyindividualshavepreviouslythoughtthiswasonlyaphenomenoninthemoreindividualisticculturesoftheWesternworld,butresearchhasshownthatattractivenessalsoplaysaroleinhiringincollectivistculturesaswell.Becauseoftheprevalenceofthisproblemduringthehiringprocessinallcultures,researchershaverecommendedtrainingagrouptoignoresuchinfluencers,justlikelegislationhasworkedtocontrolfordifferencesinsex,race,anddisabilities.[39] Seealso[edit] Societyportal Peergroup Schoolbullying Self-esteem Socialstatus References[edit] ^ofCorporationsandTaxation,Massachusetts.Dept.(1932)."AnnualReportoftheCommissionerofCorporationsandTaxation".AnnualReportoftheCommissionerofCorporationsandTaxation.UniversityofMichigan:101. ^Ellison,NicoleB.;Steinfield,Charles;Lampe,Cliff(July2007)."TheBenefitsofFacebook"Friends:"SocialCapitalandCollegeStudents'UseofOnlineSocialNetworkSites".JournalofComputer-MediatedCommunication.12(4):1143–1168.doi:10.1111/j.1083-6101.2007.00367.x. ^E.W.,J.T.,Zuckerman,Jost(2001).""WhatMakesYouThinkYou'resoPopular?Self-EvaluationMaintenanceandtheSubjectiveSideofthe'FriendshipParadox.'"".SocialPsychologyQuarterly.64(3):207–223.doi:10.2307/3090112.JSTOR 3090112. ^"Popularityanunconsciousdeterrent".[permanentdeadlink] ^EtymologyOnlineentryforPopular,5April2009. ^abcdefghScott,B.A.,&Judge,T.A.(2009).Thepopularitycontestatwork:Whowins,why,andwhatdotheyreceive?JournalofAppliedPsychology,94(1),20–33. 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Furtherreading[edit] WikiquotehasquotationsrelatedtoPopularity. LookuppopularityinWiktionary,thefreedictionary. "InterpersonalRelationsAmongFemaleAdolescents"#DonnaEder;SociologyofEducation,Vol.58,No.3(Jul.,1985),pp. 154–165;AmericanSociologicalAssociation. "HowtobePopular"#Dr.A.L.Freedman;PopularityExplained.com,retrievedJuly19,2015. 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