Otto von Bismarck - Wikipedia

Otto, Prince of Bismarck, Count of Bismarck-Schönhausen, Duke of Lauenburg born Otto Eduard Leopold von Bismarck, was a conservative German statesman and ... OttovonBismarck FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch FirstChancellorofGermany(1871–1890) "vonBismarck"redirectshere.Forotheruses,seeBismarck(disambiguation). HisSereneHighnessThePrinceofBismarckBismarckin1890ChancelloroftheGermanEmpireInoffice21March1871 –20March1890MonarchWilhelmIFriedrichIIIWilhelmIIDeputyOttoGrafzuStolberg-WernigerodeKarlHeinrichvonBoetticherPrecededbyPositionestablishedSucceededbyLeovonCapriviFederalChancelloroftheNorthGermanConfederationInoffice1July1867 –21March1871PresidentWilhelmIPrecededbyPositionestablishedSucceededbyhimself(asChancelloroftheGermanEmpire)Minister-PresidentofPrussiaInoffice9November1873 –20March1890MonarchWilhelmIFriedrichIIIWilhelmIIPrecededbyAlbrechtvonRoonSucceededbyLeovonCapriviInoffice23September1862 –1January1873MonarchWilhelmIPrecededbyAdolfzuHohenlohe-IngelfingenSucceededbyAlbrechtvonRoonMinisterofForeignAffairsInoffice23November1862 –20March1890PrimeMinisterHimselfAlbrechtvonRoonPrecededbyAlbrechtvonBernstorffSucceededbyLeovonCaprivi PersonaldetailsBornOttoEduardLeopoldvonBismarck-Schönhausen(1815-04-01)1April1815Schönhausen,KingdomofPrussiaDied30July1898(1898-07-30)(aged 83)Friedrichsruh,GermanEmpireRestingplaceBismarckMausoleum53°31′38″N10°20′9.96″E/53.52722°N10.3361000°E/53.52722;10.3361000PoliticalpartyIndependentSpouse(s)JohannavonPuttkamer ​​(m. 1847;died 1894)​ChildrenMarieHerbertWilhelmParent(s)KarlWilhelmFerdinandvonBismarck(1771–1845)WilhelmineLuiseMencken(1789–1839)AlmamaterUniversityofGöttingenUniversityofBerlinUniversityofGreifswaldOccupationPolitician•diplomat•author•soldier•lawyerSignature PartofaseriesonConservatism Variants Cultural Fiscal Green Liberal Libertarian National Paternalistic Pragmatic Progressive Populist Social Traditionalist Concepts Civilsociety Communitarianism Complementarianism Culturalheritage Familialism Familyvalues Naturallaw Naturalorder Privateproperty Ruleoflaw Solidarity Tradition Thinkers Johnson Hume Burke More Maistre Bonald Haller Chateaubriand Coleridge Karamzin Carlyle Newman Tocqueville Cortés Dostoevsky Taine Belloc Chesterton Strauss Oakeshott Burnham Kuehnelt-Leddihn Kirk Buckley Scruton Hitchens Peterson Politicians Adams Pitt Canning Metternich Disraeli Bismarck Salisbury Dmowski Baldwin Maurras Salazar Gaulle Franco Reagan Powell Thatcher Kohl Organizations CentristDemocratInternational EuropeanConservativesandReformistsParty EuropeanPeople'sParty InternationalDemocratUnion MuslimBrotherhood Tradition,Family,Property Religiousconservatism Christian Catholicism Democracy Fundamentalism Integralism Right Hindu Jewish Islamic Nationalvariants Australia Belgium Belize Brazil Canada Blue Red Social China Colombia Cuba Denmark Finland France ActionFrançaise Gaullism Maurassisme Germany Revolutionary StateSocialism Greece Guatemala HongKong India Hindutva Mexico NewZealand Pakistan Panama Russia Eurasianism Putinism Serbia Spain Carlism Francoism Switzerland SouthKorea Taiwan Turkey Democracy Erdoğanism UnitedKingdom One-nation Thatcherism Toryism UnitedStates Compassionate Fusionism Movement Neo Paleo Trumpism Relatedtopics AncienRégime Anti-communism Aristocracy Corporatism Counter-revolutionary Elitetheory Feudalism Conservativefeminism Maternalism Monarchism Nativism Patriarchy Radicalright Europe UnitedStates Reactionary Neo Right-wingpolitics New Old Small-cconservative  Conservatismportal  Politicsportalvte Otto,PrinceofBismarck,CountofBismarck-Schönhausen,DukeofLauenburg(German:OttoFürstvonBismarck,GrafvonBismarck-Schönhausen,HerzogzuLauenburgpronounced[ˈɔtoːfɔnˈbɪsmaʁk](listen);1April1815–30July1898),bornOttoEduardLeopoldvonBismarck,wasaconservativeGermanstatesmananddiplomat.Fromhisbaseintheupper-classofJunkerlandowners,BismarckroserapidlyinPrussianpolitics.HemastermindedtheunificationofGermanyin1871andservedasitsfirstchancelloruntil1890,inwhichcapacityhedominatedEuropeanaffairsfortwodecades.HehadservedasthechancelloroftheNorthGermanConfederationfrom1867to1871andalongsidetheofficeofchancellorofGermany,hewasPrussia'sministerpresidentandtheministerofForeignAffairsfrom1862to1890.Beforehisrisetotheexecutivepower,BismarckwasthePrussianambassadortoFranceandRussiaandservedinbothhousesofthePrussianParliament.HecooperatedwithKingWilhelmIofPrussiatounifythevariousGermanstates,apartnershipthatwouldlastfortherestofWilhelm'slife.KingWilhelmgrantedChancellorBismarckthetitlesofCountofBismarck-Schönhausenin1865andPrinceofBismarckin1871.Bismarckprovokedthreeshort,decisivewarsagainstDenmark,Austria,andFrance.FollowingthevictoryagainstAustria,heabolishedthesupranationalGermanConfederationandinsteadformedtheNorthGermanConfederationasthefirstGermannationalstate,aligningthesmallerNorthGermanstatesbehindPrussia,andexcludingAustria.ReceivingthesupportoftheindependentSouthGermanstatesintheConfederation'sdefeatofFrance,heformedtheGermanEmpire–whichalsoexcludedAustria–andunitedGermany. WithPrussiandominanceaccomplishedby1871,BismarckskillfullyusedbalanceofpowerdiplomacytomaintainGermany'spositioninapeacefulEurope.TohistorianEricHobsbawm,Bismarck"remainedundisputedworldchampionatthegameofmultilateraldiplomaticchessforalmosttwentyyearsafter1871,[and]devotedhimselfexclusively,andsuccessfully,tomaintainingpeacebetweenthepowers".[1]However,hisannexationofAlsace–LorrainegavenewfueltoFrenchnationalismandGermanophobia.[2]Bismarck'sdiplomacyofRealpolitikandpowerfulruleathomegainedhimthenicknametheIronChancellor.Germanunificationanditsrapideconomicgrowthwasthefoundationtohisforeignpolicy.Hedislikedcolonialismbutreluctantlybuiltanoverseasempirewhenitwasdemandedbybotheliteandmassopinion.Jugglingaverycomplexinterlockingseriesofconferences,negotiationsandalliances,heusedhisdiplomaticskillstomaintainGermany'sposition. Amasterofcomplexpoliticsathome,Bismarckcreatedthefirstwelfarestateinthemodernworld,withthegoalofgainingworkingclasssupportthatmightotherwisegotohisSocialistopponents.[3]Inthe1870s,healliedhimselfwiththelow-tariff,anti-CatholicLiberalsandfoughttheCatholicChurchinwhatwascalledtheKulturkampf("culturestruggle").HelostthatbattleastheCatholicsrespondedbyformingthepowerfulGermanCentrePartyandusinguniversalmalesuffragetogainablocofseats.Bismarckthenreversedhimself,endedtheKulturkampf,brokewiththeLiberals,imposedprotectivetariffs,andformedapoliticalalliancewiththeCentrePartytofighttheSocialists.AdevoutLutheran,hewasloyaltohisruler,KaiserWilhelmI,whoarguedwithBismarckbutintheendsupportedhimagainsttheadviceofhiswifeEmpressAugustaandhisheirCrownPrinceFrederickWilliam.WhileGermany'sparliamentwaselectedbyuniversalmalesuffrage,itdidnothavemuchcontrolofgovernmentpolicy.Bismarckdistrusteddemocracyandruledthroughastrong,well-trainedbureaucracywithpowerinthehandsofatraditionalJunkerelitethatconsistedofthelandednobilityineasternPrussia.Inhisroleaschancellor,helargelycontrolleddomesticandforeignaffairs.Theyear1888sawaquicktransitionontheGermanthronefromWilhelmItohissonFrederickIIItoFrederick'ssonWilhelmII.TheheadstrongKaiserWilhelmIIdismissedBismarckfromoffice.Heretiredtowritehismemoirs. Bismarckwasstrong-willed,outspokenandoverbearing,buthecouldalsobepolite,charmingandwitty.[4]Occasionallyhedisplayedaviolenttemper–whichhesometimesfeignedtogettheresultshewanted–andhekepthispowerbymelodramaticallythreateningresignationtimeandagain,whichcowedWilhelmI.Hepossessednotonlyalong-termnationalandinternationalvisionbutalsotheshort-termabilitytojugglecomplexdevelopments.BismarckbecameaherotoGermannationalists;theybuiltmanymonumentshonoringthefounderofthenewReich.ManyhistorianspraisehimasavisionarywhowasinstrumentalinunitingGermanyand,oncethathadbeenaccomplished,keptthepeaceinEuropethroughadroitdiplomacy.[5]HistorianRobertK.MassiehasnotedBismarck'spopularimagewasas"gruff"and"militaristic",whileinreality"Bismarck'stoolwasaggressive,ruthlessdiplomacy."[6] Contents 1Earlyyears 2Earlypoliticalcareer 2.1Youngpolitician 2.2AmbassadortoRussiaandFrance 3MinisterPresidentofPrussia 3.1BloodandIronspeech 3.2DefeatofDenmark 3.3DefeatofAustria 3.4Franco-PrussianWar1870–71 3.5UnificationofGermany 4ChancelloroftheGermanEmpire 4.1Kulturkampf 4.2Economy 4.3Germanisation 4.4Socialism 4.5Foreignpolicies 4.5.1EarlyrelationswithEurope 4.5.2France 4.5.3Italy 4.5.4Russia 4.5.5TripleAlliance 4.5.6Coloniesandimperialism 4.5.7Avoidingwar 4.6Sociallegislation 4.6.1Earlylegislation 4.6.2SicknessInsuranceLawof1883 4.6.3AccidentInsuranceLawof1884 4.6.4OldAgeandDisabilityInsuranceLawof1889 5Downfall 5.1Finalyearsandforcedresignation 5.2Death 6Legacyandmemory 6.1Reputation 6.2Memorials 6.3Bismarck:memoryandmyth 6.4Placenames 7Titles,styles,honoursandarms 7.1Titlesandstyles 7.2DukeofLauenburg 7.3Honours 8Inpopularculture 9Seealso 10References 11Furtherreading 11.1Biographies 11.2Surveys 11.3Specializedstudies 11.4Historiographyandmemory 11.5Primarysources 12Externallinks Earlyyears Bismarckin1836,atage21 Bismarckwasbornin1815atSchönhausen,anoblefamilyestatewestofBerlininthePrussianprovinceofSaxony.Hisfather,KarlWilhelmFerdinandvonBismarck(1771–1845),wasaJunkerestateownerandaformerPrussianmilitaryofficer;hismother,WilhelmineLuiseMencken(1789–1839),wasthewell-educateddaughterofaseniorgovernmentofficialinBerlin.In1816,thefamilymovedtoitsPomeranianestate,Kniephof(nowKonarzewo,Poland),northeastofStettin(nowSzczecin),inthethen-PrussianprovinceofFurtherPomerania.There,Bismarckspenthischildhoodinabucolicsetting.[7] Bismarckhadtwosiblings:hisolderbrotherBernhard(1810–1893)andhisyoungersisterMalwine(1827–1908).TheworldsawBismarckasatypicalbackwoodsPrussianJunker,animagethatheencouragedbywearingmilitaryuniforms.However,hewaswelleducatedandcosmopolitanwithagiftforconversation,andknewEnglish,French,Italian,PolishandRussian.[8] BismarckwaseducatedatJohannErnstPlamann'selementaryschool,[9]andtheFriedrich-WilhelmandGrauesKlostersecondaryschools.From1832to1833,hestudiedlawattheUniversityofGöttingen,wherehewasamemberoftheCorpsHannovera,andthenenrolledattheUniversityofBerlin(1833–35).In1838,whilestationedasanarmyreservistinGreifswald,hestudiedagricultureattheUniversityofGreifswald.[10]AtGöttingen,BismarckbefriendedtheAmericanstudentJohnLothropMotley.Motley,wholaterbecameaneminenthistoriananddiplomatwhileremainingclosetoBismarck,wroteanovelin1839,Morton'sHope,ortheMemoirsofaProvincial,aboutlifeinaGermanuniversity.InithedescribedBismarckasarecklessanddashingeccentric,butalsoasanextremelygiftedandcharmingyoungman.[11] AlthoughBismarckhopedtobecomeadiplomat,hestartedhispracticaltrainingasalawyerinAachenandPotsdam,andsoonresigned,havingfirstplacedhiscareerinjeopardybytakingunauthorizedleavetopursuetwoEnglishgirls:firstLauraRussell,nieceoftheDukeofCleveland,andthenIsabellaLoraine-Smith,daughterofawealthyclergyman.In1838BismarckbeganashortenedcompulsorymilitaryserviceinthePrussianArmy;activelyservingasaOne-yearvolunteerbeforebecominganofficerintheLandwehr(reserve).AfterwardshereturnedtorunthefamilyestatesatSchönhausenonhismother'sdeathinhismid-twenties. Aroundage30,BismarckformedanintensefriendshipwithMarievonThadden [de],newlymarriedtooneofhisfriends,MoritzvonBlanckenburg [de].Amonthafterherdeath,BismarckwrotetoaskforthehandinmarriageofMarie'scousin,thenoblewomanJohannavonPuttkamer(1824–94);[12]theyweremarriedatAlt-Kolziglow(modernKołczygłowy)on28July1847.Theirlongandhappymarriageproducedthreechildren:Marie(b.1847),Herbert(b.1849)andWilhelm(b.1852).Johannawasashy,retiringanddeeplyreligiouswoman,althoughfamedforhersharptongueinlaterlife. Earlypoliticalcareer Youngpolitician In1847,Bismarck,agedthirty-two,waschosenasarepresentativetothenewlycreatedPrussianlegislature,theVereinigterLandtag.There,hegainedareputationasaroyalistandreactionarypoliticianwithagiftforstingingrhetoric;heopenlyadvocatedtheideathatthemonarchhadadivinerighttorule.HisselectionwasarrangedbytheGerlachbrothers,fellowPietistLutheranswhoseultra-conservativefactionwasknownasthe"Kreuzzeitung"aftertheirnewspaper,theNeuePreußischeZeitung,whichwassonicknamedbecauseitfeaturedanIronCrossonitscover.[13][14] Bismarckin1847,atage32 InMarch1848,Prussiafacedarevolution(oneoftherevolutionsof1848acrossEurope),whichcompletelyoverwhelmedKingFrederickWilliamIV.Themonarch,thoughinitiallyinclinedtousearmedforcestosuppresstherebellion,ultimatelydeclinedtoleaveBerlinforthesafetyofmilitaryheadquartersatPotsdam.Bismarcklaterrecordedthattherehadbeena"rattlingofsabresintheirscabbards"fromPrussianofficerswhentheylearnedthattheKingwouldnotsuppresstherevolutionbyforce.Heofferednumerousconcessionstotheliberals:heworetheblack-red-goldrevolutionarycolours(asseenontheflagoftoday'sGermany),promisedtopromulgateaconstitution,agreedthatPrussiaandotherGermanstatesshouldmergeintoasinglenation-state,andappointedaliberal,GottfriedLudolfCamphausen,asMinisterPresident.[15] BismarckhadatfirsttriedtorousethepeasantsofhisestateintoanarmytomarchonBerlinintheKing'sname.[16]HetravelledtoBerlinindisguisetoofferhisservices,butwasinsteadtoldtomakehimselfusefulbyarrangingfoodsuppliesfortheArmyfromhisestatesincasetheywereneeded.TheKing'sbrother,PrinceWilhelm,hadfledtoEngland;BismarcktriedtogetWilhelm'swifeAugustatoplacetheirteenagesonFrederickWilliamonthePrussianthroneinFrederickWilliamIV'splace.Augustawouldhavenoneofit,anddetestedBismarckthereafter,[17]despitethefactthathelaterhelpedrestoreaworkingrelationshipbetweenWilhelmandhisbrothertheKing.BismarckwasnotyetamemberoftheLandtag,thelowerhouseofthenewPrussianlegislature.Theliberalmovementperishedbytheendof1848amidinternalfighting.Meanwhile,theconservativesregrouped,formedaninnergroupofadvisers—includingtheGerlachbrothers,knownasthe"Camarilla"—aroundtheKing,andretookcontrolofBerlin.Althoughaconstitutionwasgranted,itsprovisionsfellfarshortofthedemandsoftherevolutionaries.[18] In1849,BismarckwaselectedtotheLandtag.Atthisstageinhiscareer,heopposedtheunificationofGermany,arguingthatPrussiawouldloseitsindependenceintheprocess.HeacceptedhisappointmentasoneofPrussia'srepresentativesattheErfurtParliament,anassemblyofGermanstatesthatmettodiscussplansforunion,butheonlydidsotoopposethatbody'sproposalsmoreeffectively.Theparliamentfailedtobringaboutunification,foritlackedthesupportofthetwomostimportantGermanstates,PrussiaandAustria.InSeptember1850,afteradisputeoverHesse(theHesseCrisisof1850[19]),PrussiawashumiliatedandforcedtobackdownbyAustria(supportedbyRussia)intheso-calledPunctationofOlmütz;[20]aplanfortheunificationofGermanyunderPrussianleadership,proposedbyPrussia'sMinisterPresidentRadowitz,wasalsoabandoned. TheGermanConfederation1815–1866.Prussia(inblue)considerablyexpandeditsterritory. In1851,FrederickWilliamIVappointedBismarckasPrussia'senvoytotheDietoftheGermanConfederationinFrankfurt.BismarckgaveuphiselectedseatintheLandtag,butwasappointedtothePrussianHouseofLordsafewyearslater.InFrankfurtheengagedinabattleofwillswiththeAustrianrepresentativeCountFriedrichvonThunundHohenstein.HeinsistedonbeingtreatedasanequalbypettytacticssuchasimitatingThunwhenThunclaimedtheprivilegesofsmokingandremovinghisjacketinmeetings.[21]ThisepisodewasthebackgroundforanaltercationintheFrankfurtchamberwithGeorgvonVinckethatledtoaduelbetweenBismarckandVinckewithCarlvonBodelschwinghasanimpartialparty,whichendedwithoutinjury.[22] Bismarck'seightyearsinFrankfurtweremarkedbychangesinhispoliticalopinions,detailedinthenumerouslengthymemoranda,whichhesenttohisministerialsuperiorsinBerlin.NolongerundertheinfluenceofhisultraconservativePrussianfriends,Bismarckbecamelessreactionaryandmorepragmatic.HebecameconvincedthattocountervailAustria'snewlyrestoredinfluence,PrussiawouldhavetoallyherselfwithotherGermanstates.Asaresult,hegrewtobemoreacceptingofthenotionofaunitedGermannation.Hegraduallycametobelievethatheandhisfellowconservativeshadtotaketheleadincreatingaunifiednationtokeepfrombeingeclipsed.Healsobelievedthatthemiddle-classliberalswantedaunifiedGermanymorethantheywantedtobreakthegripofthetraditionalforcesoversociety. BismarckalsoworkedtomaintainthefriendshipofRussiaandaworkingrelationshipwithNapoleonIII'sFrance,thelatterbeinganathematohisconservativefriends,theGerlachs,[23]butnecessarybothtothreatenAustriaandtopreventFranceallyingwithRussia.InafamouslettertoLeopoldvonGerlach,Bismarckwrotethatitwasfoolishtoplaychesshavingfirstput16ofthe64squaresoutofbounds.Thisobservationbecameironic,asafter1871,FranceindeedbecameGermany'spermanentenemy,andeventuallyalliedwithRussiaagainstGermanyinthe1890s.[24] BismarckwasalarmedbyPrussia'sisolationduringtheCrimeanWarofthemid-1850s,inwhichAustriasidedwithBritainandFranceagainstRussia;PrussiawasalmostnotinvitedtothepeacetalksinParis.IntheEasternCrisisofthe1870s,fearofarepetitionofthisturnofeventswouldlaterbeafactorinBismarck'ssigningtheDualAlliancewithAustria-Hungaryin1879. AmbassadortoRussiaandFrance InOctober1857,FrederickWilliamIVsufferedaparalysingstroke,andhisbrotherWilhelmtookoverthePrussiangovernmentasRegent.Wilhelmwasinitiallyseenasamoderateruler,whosefriendshipwithliberalBritainwassymbolisedbytherecentmarriageofhissonFrederickWilliamtoQueenVictoria'seldestdaughter.Aspartofhis"NewCourse",Wilhelmbroughtinnewministers,moderateconservativesknownastheWochenblattaftertheirnewspaper. Bismarckin1863withRoon(centre)andMoltke(right),thethreeleadersofPrussiainthe1860s TheRegentsoonreplacedBismarckasenvoyinFrankfurtandmadehimPrussia'sambassadortotheRussianEmpire.[25]Intheory,thiswasapromotion,asRussiawasoneofPrussia'stwomostpowerfulneighbors.ButBismarckwassidelinedfromeventsinGermanyandcouldonlywatchimpotentlyasFrancedroveAustriaoutofLombardyduringtheItalianWarof1859.BismarckproposedthatPrussiashouldexploitAustria'sweaknesstomoveherfrontiers"asfarsouthasLakeConstance"ontheSwissborder;instead,PrussiamobilisedtroopsintheRhinelandtodeterfurtherFrenchadvancesintoVenetia. BismarckstayedinStPetersburgforfouryears,duringwhichhealmostlosthislegtobotchedmedicaltreatmentandonceagainmethisfutureadversary,theRussianPrinceGorchakov,whohadbeentheRussianrepresentativeinFrankfurtintheearly1850s.TheRegentalsoappointedHelmuthvonMoltkeasthenewChiefofStaffofthePrussianArmy,andAlbrechtvonRoonasMinisterofWarwiththejobofreorganizingthearmy.Overthenexttwelveyears,Bismarck,MoltkeandRoontransformedPrussia.[26] Despitehislengthystayabroad,BismarckwasnotentirelydetachedfromGermandomesticaffairs.Heremainedwell-informedduetoRoon,withwhomBismarckformedalastingfriendshipandpoliticalalliance.InMay1862,hewassenttoParistoserveasambassadortoFrance,andalsovisitedEnglandthatsummer.Thesevisitsenabledhimtomeetandtakethemeasureofseveraladversaries:NapoleonIIIinFrance,andinBritain,PrimeMinisterPalmerston,ForeignSecretaryEarlRussell,andConservativepoliticianBenjaminDisraeli. MinisterPresidentofPrussia OttovonBismarckasMinisterPresidentofPrussia,shownwearinginsigniaofaknightoftheJohanniterorden,1858 PrinceWilhelmbecameKingofPrussiauponhisbrotherFrederickWilhelmIV'sdeathin1861.ThenewmonarchoftencameintoconflictwiththeincreasinglyliberalPrussianDiet(Landtag).Acrisisarosein1862,whentheDietrefusedtoauthorizefundingforaproposedre-organizationofthearmy.TheKing'sministerscouldnotconvincelegislatorstopassthebudget,andtheKingwasunwillingtomakeconcessions.WilhelmthreatenedtoabdicateinfavourofhissonCrownPrinceFrederickWilliam,whoopposedhisdoingso,believingthatBismarckwastheonlypoliticiancapableofhandlingthecrisis.However,Wilhelmwasambivalentaboutappointingapersonwhodemandedunfetteredcontroloverforeignaffairs.ItwasinSeptember1862,whentheAbgeordnetenhaus(HouseofDeputies)overwhelminglyrejectedtheproposedbudget,thatWilhelmwaspersuadedtorecallBismarcktoPrussiaontheadviceofRoon.On23September1862,WilhelmappointedBismarckMinisterPresidentandForeignMinister.[27] Bismarck,RoonandMoltketookchargeatatimewhenrelationsamongtheGreatPowers(GreatBritain,France,AustriaandRussia)hadbeenshatteredbytheCrimeanWarandtheFirstItalianWarofIndependence.Inthemidstofthisdisarray,theEuropeanbalanceofpowerwasrestructuredwiththecreationoftheGermanEmpireasthedominantpowerincontinentalEuropeapartfromRussia.ThiswasachievedbyBismarck'sdiplomacy,Roon'sreorganizationofthearmyandMoltke'smilitarystrategy.[28] DespitetheinitialdistrustoftheKingandCrownPrinceandtheloathingofQueenAugusta,BismarcksoonacquiredapowerfulholdovertheKingbyforceofpersonalityandpowersofpersuasion.BismarckwasintentonmaintainingroyalsupremacybyendingthebudgetdeadlockintheKing'sfavour,evenifhehadtouseextralegalmeanstodoso.UndertheConstitution,thebudgetcouldbepassedonlyafterthekingandlegislatureagreedonitsterms.BismarckcontendedthatsincetheConstitutiondidnotprovideforcasesinwhichlegislatorsfailedtoapproveabudget,therewasa"legalloophole"intheConstitutionandsohecouldapplythepreviousyear'sbudgettokeepthegovernmentrunning.Thus,onthebasisofthe1861budget,taxcollectioncontinuedforfouryears.[29] Bismarck'sconflictwiththelegislatorsintensifiedinthecomingyears.FollowingtheAlvenslebenConventionof1863,theHouseofDeputiesresolvedthatitcouldnolongercometotermswithBismarck;inresponse,theKingdissolvedtheDiet,accusingitoftryingtoobtainunconstitutionalcontrolovertheministry—which,undertheConstitution,wasresponsiblesolelytotheking.Bismarckthenissuedanedictrestrictingthefreedomofthepress,anedictthatevengainedthepublicoppositionoftheCrownPrince.Despite(orperhapsbecauseof)hisattemptstosilencecritics,Bismarckremainedalargelyunpopularpolitician.HissupportersfaredpoorlyintheelectionsofOctober1863,inwhichaliberalcoalition,whoseprimarymemberwastheProgressParty,wonovertwo-thirdsoftheseats.TheHousemaderepeatedcallsforBismarcktobedismissed,buttheKingsupportedhim,fearingthatifhediddismisstheMinisterPresident,hewouldmostlikelybesucceededbyaliberal.[30] BloodandIronspeech Mainarticle:BloodandIronspeech Germanunificationhadbeenamajorobjectiveoftherevolutionsof1848,whenrepresentativesoftheGermanstatesmetinFrankfurtanddraftedaconstitution,creatingafederalunionwithanationalparliamenttobeelectedbyuniversalmalesuffrage.InApril1849,theFrankfurtParliamentofferedthetitleofEmperortoKingFrederickWilliamIV.FearingtheoppositionoftheotherGermanprincesandthemilitaryinterventionofAustriaandRussia,theKingrenouncedthispopularmandate.Thus,theFrankfurtParliamentendedinfailurefortheGermanliberals.[citationneeded]On30September1862,BismarckmadeafamousspeechtotheBudgetCommitteeofthePrussianChamberofDeputiesinwhichheexpoundedontheuseof"ironandblood"toachievePrussia'sgoals: Prussiamustconcentrateandmaintainitspowerforthefavorablemomentwhichhasalreadyslippedbyseveraltimes.Prussia'sboundariesaccordingtotheViennatreatiesarenotfavorabletoahealthystatelife.Thegreatquestionsofthetimewillnotberesolvedbyspeechesandmajoritydecisions–thatwasthegreatmistakeof1848and1849–butbyironandblood.[31] DefeatofDenmark Mainarticle:SecondSchleswigWar Priortothe1860s,GermanyconsistedofamultitudeofprincipalitieslooselyboundtogetherasmembersoftheGermanConfederation.BismarckusedbothdiplomacyandthePrussianmilitarytoachieveunification,excludingAustriafromaunifiedGermany.ThismadePrussiathemostpowerfulanddominantcomponentofthenewGermany,butalsoensuredthatitremainedanauthoritarianstateandnotaliberalparliamentarydemocracy.[32] BismarckfacedadiplomaticcrisiswhenKingFrederickVIIofDenmarkdiedinNovember1863.ThesuccessiontotheduchiesofSchleswigandHolsteinwasdisputed;theywereclaimedbyChristianIX,FrederickVII'sheirasKing,andalsobyFrederickvonAugustenburg,aDanishduke.PrussianpublicopinionstronglyfavouredAugustenburg'sclaim,asthepopulationsofHolsteinandsouthernSchleswigwereprimarilyGerman-speaking.[citationneeded]BismarcktookanunpopularstepbyinsistingthattheterritorieslegallybelongedtotheDanishmonarchundertheLondonProtocolsignedadecadeearlier.Nonetheless,BismarckdenouncedChristian'sdecisiontocompletelyannexSchleswigtoDenmark.WithsupportfromAustria,heissuedanultimatumforChristianIXtoreturnSchleswigtoitsformerstatus.[33]WhenDenmarkrefused,AustriaandPrussiainvaded,sparkingtheSecondSchleswigWar.Denmarkwasultimatelyforcedtorenounceitsclaimonbothduchies. AtfirstthisseemedlikeavictoryforAugustenburg,butBismarcksoonremovedhimfrompowerbymakingaseriesofunworkabledemands,namelythatPrussiashouldhavecontroloverthearmyandnavyoftheduchies.Originally,ithadbeenproposedthattheDietoftheGermanConfederation,inwhichallthestatesofGermanywererepresented,shoulddeterminethefateoftheduchies;butbeforethisschemecouldbeeffected,BismarckinducedAustriatoagreetotheGasteinConvention.Underthisagreementsignedon20August1865,PrussiareceivedSchleswig,whileAustriareceivedHolstein.InthatyearBismarckwasgiventhetitleofCount(Graf)ofBismarck-Schönhausen.[34] DefeatofAustria Mainarticle:Austro-PrussianWar In1866,AustriarenegedontheagreementanddemandedthattheDietdeterminetheSchleswig–Holsteinissue.BismarckusedthisasanexcusetostartawarwithAustriabyaccusingthemofviolatingtheGasteinConvention.BismarcksentPrussiantroopstooccupyHolstein.Provoked,AustriacalledfortheaidofotherGermanstates,whoquicklybecameinvolvedintheAustro-PrussianWar.[35]ThankstoRoon'sreorganization,thePrussianarmywasnearlyequalinnumberstotheAustrianarmy.WiththestrategicgeniusofMoltke,thePrussianarmyfoughtbattlesitwasabletowin.BismarckhadalsomadeasecretalliancewithItaly,whodesiredAustrian-controlledVeneto.Italy'sentryintothewarforcedtheAustrianstodividetheirforces.[36] Meanwhile,asthewarbegan,aGermanradicalnamedFerdinandCohen-BlindattemptedtoassassinateBismarckinBerlin,shootinghimfivetimesatcloserange.Bismarckhadonlyminorinjuries.[37]Cohen-Blindlatercommittedsuicidewhileincustody. Cartoonfrom1867makingfunofBismarck'sdifferentroles,fromgeneraltoministerofforeignaffairs,federalchancellor,hunter,diplomatandpresidentoftheparliamentoftheZollverein,thePrussian-dominatedGermancustomsunion Thewarlastedsevenweeks.AustriahadaseeminglypowerfularmythatwasalliedwithmostofthenorthGermanandallofthesouthGermanstates.Nevertheless,PrussiawonthedecisiveBattleofKöniggrätz.TheKingandhisgeneralswantedtopushonward,conquerBohemiaandmarchtoVienna,butBismarck,worriedthatPrussianmilitaryluckmightchangeorthatFrancemightinterveneonAustria'sside,enlistedthehelpofCrownPrinceFrederickWilhelm,whohadopposedthewarbuthadcommandedoneofthePrussianarmiesatKöniggrätz,todissuadehisfatherafterstormyarguments.Bismarckinsistedona"softpeace"withnoannexationsandnovictoryparades,soastobeabletoquicklyrestorefriendlyrelationswithAustria.[38] AsaresultofthePeaceofPrague(1866),theGermanConfederationwasdissolved.PrussiaannexedSchleswig,Holstein,Frankfurt,Hanover,Hesse-Kassel,andNassau.Furthermore,AustriahadtopromisenottointerveneinGermanaffairs.TosolidifyPrussianhegemony,Prussiaforcedthe21statesnorthoftheRiverMaintojoinitinformingtheNorthGermanConfederationin1867.TheconfederationwasgovernedbyaconstitutionlargelydraftedbyBismarck.[citationneeded]Executivepowerwasvestedinapresident,anhereditaryofficeofthekingsofPrussia,whowasassistedbyachancellorresponsibleonlytohim.Aspresidentoftheconfederation,WilhelmappointedBismarckaschancelloroftheconfederation.LegislationwastheresponsibilityoftheReichstag,apopularlyelectedbody,andtheBundesrat,anadvisorybodyrepresentingthestates.TheBundesratwas,inpractice,thestrongerchamber.Bismarckwasthedominantfigureinthenewarrangement;asForeignMinisterofPrussia,heinstructedthePrussiandeputiestotheBundesrat.[citationneeded] Prussiahadonlyaplurality(17outof43seats)intheBundesratdespitebeinglargerthantheother21statescombined,butBismarckcouldeasilycontroltheproceedingsthroughallianceswiththesmallerstates.Thisbeganwhathistoriansrefertoas"TheMiseryofAustria"inwhichAustriaservedasamerevassaltothesuperiorGermany,arelationshipthatwastoshapehistoryuntiltheendoftheFirstWorldWar.[39]BismarckhadoriginallymanagedtoconvincesmallerstateslikeSaxony,Hesse-Kassel,andHanovertojoinwithPrussiaagainstAustria,afterpromisingthemprotectionfromforeigninvasionandfaircommerciallaws.[citationneeded] Bismarck,whobynowheldtherankofmajorintheLandwehr,worethisuniformduringthecampaignandwasatlastpromotedtotherankofmajor-generalintheLandwehrcavalryafterthewar.Althoughheneverpersonallycommandedtroopsinthefield,heusuallyworeageneral'suniforminpublicfortherestofhislife,asseeninnumerouspaintingsandphotographs.HewasalsogivenacashgrantbythePrussianLandtag,whichheusedtopurchaseacountryestateinVarzin,nowpartofPoland.[citationneeded] MilitarysuccessbroughtBismarcktremendouspoliticalsupportinPrussia.Intheelectionsof1866theliberalssufferedamajordefeat,losingtheirmajorityintheHouseofDeputies.Thenew,largelyconservativeHousewasonmuchbettertermswithBismarckthanpreviousbodies;attheMinisterPresident'srequest,itretroactivelyapprovedthebudgetsofthepastfouryears,whichhadbeenimplementedwithoutparliamentaryconsent.Bismarcksuspecteditwouldsplittheliberalopposition.Whilesomeliberalsarguedthatconstitutionalgovernmentwasabrightlinethatshouldnotbecrossed,mostofthembelieveditwouldbeawasteoftimetoopposethebill,andsupporteditinhopesofwinningmorefreedominthefuture.[citationneeded] JonathanSteinbergsaysofBismarck'sachievementstothispoint:ThescaleofBismarck'striumphcannotbeexaggerated.HealonehadbroughtaboutacompletetransformationoftheEuropeaninternationalorder.Hehadtoldthosewhowouldlistenwhatheintendedtodo,howheintendedtodoit,andhedidit.Heachievedthisincrediblefeatwithoutcommandinganarmy,andwithouttheabilitytogiveanordertothehumblestcommonsoldier,withoutcontrolofalargeparty,withoutpublicsupport,indeed,inthefaceofalmostuniversalhostility,withoutamajorityinparliament,withoutcontrolofhiscabinet,andwithoutaloyalfollowinginthebureaucracy.Henolongerhadthesupportofthepowerfulconservativeinterestgroupswhohadhelpedhimachievepower.Themostseniordiplomatsintheforeignservice...wereswornenemiesandheknewit.TheQueenandtheRoyalFamilyhatedhimandtheKing,emotionalandunreliable,wouldsoonhavehis70thbirthday....Withperfectjustice,inAugust1866,hepunchedhisfistonhisdeskandcried"Ihavebeatenthemall!All!"[40] Franco-PrussianWar1870–71 Mainarticle:Franco-PrussianWar SurrenderofNapoleonIIIaftertheBattleofSedan,1September1870 Prussia'svictoryoverAustriaincreasedthealreadyexistingtensionswithFrance.TheEmperorofFrance,NapoleonIII,hadtriedtogainterritoryforFrance(inBelgiumandontheleftbankoftheRhine)asacompensationfornotjoiningthewaragainstPrussiaandwasdisappointedbythesurprisinglyquickoutcomeofthewar.[41]Accordingly,oppositionpoliticianAdolpheThiersclaimedthatitwasFrance,notAustria,whohadreallybeendefeatedatKöniggrätz.Bismarck,atthesametime,didnotavoidwarwithFrance,thoughhefearedtheFrenchforanumberofreasons.First,hefearedthatAustria,hungryforrevenge,wouldallywiththeFrench.Similarly,hefearedthattheRussianarmywouldassistFrancetomaintainabalanceofpower.[42]Still,however,BismarckbelievedthatiftheGermanstatesperceivedFranceastheaggressor,theywouldthenunitebehindtheKingofPrussia.ToachievethishekeptNapoleonIIIinvolvedinvariousintrigues,wherebyFrancemightgainterritoryfromLuxembourgorBelgium.Franceneverachievedanysuchgain,butitwasmadetolookgreedyanduntrustworthy.[43] Asuitablepretextforwararosein1870,whentheGermanPrinceLeopoldofHohenzollern-SigmaringenwasofferedtheSpanishthrone,vacantsincearevolutionin1868.FrancepressuredLeopoldintowithdrawinghiscandidacy.Notcontentwiththis,ParisdemandedthatWilhelm,asheadoftheHouseofHohenzollern,assurethatnoHohenzollernwouldeverseektheSpanishcrownagain.ToprovokeFranceintodeclaringwarwithPrussia,BismarckpublishedtheEmsDispatch,acarefullyeditedversionofaconversationbetweenKingWilhelmandtheFrenchambassadortoPrussia,CountBenedetti.Thisconversationhadbeeneditedsothateachnationfeltthatitsambassadorhadbeenslightedandridiculed,thusinflamingpopularsentimentonbothsidesinfavorofwar.Langer,however,arguesthatthisepisodeplayedaminorroleincausingthewar.[44] BismarckwroteinhisMemoirsthathe"hadnodoubtthataFranco-GermanwarmusttakeplacebeforetheconstructionofaunitedGermanycouldberealised."[45]YethefeltconfidentthattheFrencharmywasnotpreparedtogivebattletoGermany'snumericallylargerforces:"IftheFrenchfightusalonetheyarelost."HewasalsoconvincedthattheFrenchwouldnotbeabletofindalliessince"France,thevictor,wouldbeadangertoeverybody–Prussiatonobody."Headded,"Thatisourstrongpoint."[46] Francemobilizedanddeclaredwaron19July.TheGermanstatessawFranceastheaggressor,and—sweptupbynationalismandpatrioticzeal—theyralliedtoPrussia'ssideandprovidedtroops.BothofBismarck'ssonsservedasofficersinthePrussiancavalry.ThewarwasagreatsuccessforPrussiaastheGermanarmy,controlledbyChiefofStaffMoltke,wonvictoryaftervictory.Themajorbattleswereallfoughtinonemonth(7Augustto1September),andbothFrencharmieswerecapturedatSedanandMetz,thelatterafterasiegeofsomeweeks.NapoleonIIIwastakenprisoneratSedanandkeptinGermanyforatimeincaseBismarckhadneedofhimtoheadtheFrenchregime;helaterdiedinexileinEnglandin1873.TheremainderofthewarfeaturedasiegeofParis,thecitywas"ineffectuallybombarded";[47]thenewFrenchrepublicanregimethentried,withoutsuccess,torelievePariswithvarioushastilyassembledarmiesandincreasinglybitterpartisanwarfare. Bismarckquotedthefirstverselyricsof"LaMarseillaise",amongstothers,whenbeingrecordedonanEdisonphonographin1889,theonlyknownrecordingofhisvoice.Abiographerstatedthathedidso,19yearsafterthewar,tomocktheFrench.[48] UnificationofGermany Mainarticle:UnificationofGermany AntonvonWerner'spatriotic,much-reproduceddepictionoftheproclamationofWilhelmIasGermanemperorintheHallofMirrorsatVersailles.Bismarckisinthecenter,wearingawhiteuniform.(1885) BismarckactedimmediatelytosecuretheunificationofGermany.HenegotiatedwithrepresentativesofthesouthernGermanstates,offeringspecialconcessionsiftheyagreedtounification.Thenegotiationssucceeded;patrioticsentimentoverwhelmedwhatoppositionremained.Whilethewarwasinitsfinalphase,WilhelmIofPrussiawasproclaimedGermanEmperoron18January1871intheHallofMirrorsintheChâteaudeVersailles.[49]ThenewGermanEmpirewasafederation:eachofits25constituentstates(kingdoms,grandduchies,duchies,principalities,andfreecities)retainedsomeautonomy.TheKingofPrussia,asGermanEmperor,wasnotsovereignovertheentiretyofGermany;hewasonlyprimusinterpares,orfirstamongequals.However,heheldthepresidencyoftheBundesrat,whichmettodiscusspolicypresentedbytheChancellor,whomtheemperorappointed. Intheend,FrancehadtocedeAlsaceandpartofLorraine,asMoltkeandhisgeneralswanteditasabuffer.HistoriansdebatewhetherBismarckwantedthisannexationorwasforcedintoitbyawaveofGermanpublicandeliteopinion.[50]Francewasalsorequiredtopayanindemnity;[51]theindemnityfigurewascalculated,onthebasisofpopulation,asthepreciseequivalentoftheindemnitythatNapoleonIhadimposedonPrussiain1807. HistoriansdebatewhetherBismarckhadamasterplantoexpandtheNorthGermanConfederationof1866toincludetheremainingindependentGermanstatesintoasingleentityorsimplytoexpandthepoweroftheKingdomofPrussia.TheyconcludethatfactorsinadditiontothestrengthofBismarck'sRealpolitikledacollectionofearlymodernpolitiestoreorganizepolitical,economic,military,anddiplomaticrelationshipsinthe19thcentury.ReactiontoDanishandFrenchnationalismprovidedfociforexpressionsofGermanunity.Militarysuccesses—especiallythoseofPrussia—inthreeregionalwarsgeneratedenthusiasmandpridethatpoliticianscouldharnesstopromoteunification.ThisexperienceechoedthememoryofmutualaccomplishmentintheNapoleonicWars,particularlyintheWarofLiberationof1813–14.ByestablishingaGermanywithoutAustria,thepoliticalandadministrativeunificationin1871atleasttemporarilysolvedtheproblemofdualism.[citationneeded] JonathanSteinbergsaidofBismarck'screationoftheGermanEmpirethat:thefirstphaseof[his]greatcareerhadbeenconcluded.Thegenius-statesmenhadtransformedEuropeanpoliticsandhadunifiedGermanyineightandahalfyears.Andhehaddonesobysheerforceofpersonality,byhisbrilliance,ruthlessness,andflexibilityofprinciple....[It]markedthehighpointof[his]career.Hehadachievedtheimpossible,andhisgeniusandthecultofgeniushadnolimits....WhenhereturnedtoBerlininMarch1871,hehadbecomeimmortal...[52] ChancelloroftheGermanEmpire Bismarckin1873 In1871,BismarckwasraisedtotherankofFürst(Prince).HewasalsoappointedasthefirstImperialChancellor(Reichskanzler)oftheGermanEmpire,butretainedhisPrussianoffices,includingthoseofMinister-PresidentandForeignMinister.Hewasalsopromotedtotherankoflieutenant-general,andboughtaformerhotelinFriedrichsruhnearHamburg,whichbecameanestate.Healsocontinuedtoserveashisownforeignminister.BecauseofboththeimperialandthePrussianofficesthatheheld,Bismarckhadnearcompletecontroloverdomesticandforeignpolicy.TheofficeofMinisterPresidentofPrussiawastemporarilyseparatedfromthatofChancellorin1873,whenAlbrechtvonRoonwasappointedtotheformeroffice.Butbytheendoftheyear,Roonresignedduetoillhealth,andBismarckagainbecameMinister-President. Kulturkampf Mainarticle:Kulturkampf Bismarcklaunchedananti-CatholicKulturkampf("culturestruggle")inPrussiain1871.ThiswaspartlymotivatedbyBismarck'sfearthatPiusIXandhissuccessorswouldusepapalinfallibilitytoachievethe"papaldesireforinternationalpoliticalhegemony....TheresultwastheKulturkampf,which,withitslargelyPrussianmeasures,complementedbysimilaractionsinseveralotherGermanstates,soughttocurbtheclericaldangerbylegislationrestrictingtheCatholicchurch'spoliticalpower."[53]InMay1872BismarckthusattemptedtoreachanunderstandingwithotherEuropeangovernmentstomanipulatefuturepapalelections;governmentsshouldagreebeforehandonunsuitablecandidates,andtheninstructtheirnationalcardinalstovoteappropriately.Thegoalwastoendthepope'scontroloverthebishopsinagivenstate,buttheprojectwentnowhere. BetweenBerlinandRome,BismarckconfrontsPopePiusIX,1875 BismarckacceleratedtheKulturkampf.Initscourse,allPrussianbishopsandmanypriestswereimprisonedorexiled.[54]Prussia'spopulationhadgreatlyexpandedinthe1860sandwasnowone-thirdCatholic.BismarckbelievedthatthepopeandbishopsheldtoomuchpowerovertheGermanCatholicsandwasfurtherconcernedabouttheemergenceoftheCatholicCentreParty,organisedin1870.WithsupportfromtheanticlericalNationalLiberalParty,whichhadbecomeBismarck'schiefallyintheReichstag,heabolishedtheCatholicDepartmentofthePrussianMinistryofCulture.ThatlefttheCatholicswithoutavoiceinhighcircles.Moreover,in1872,theJesuitswereexpelledfromGermany.In1873,moreanti-CatholiclawsallowedthePrussiangovernmenttosupervisetheeducationoftheRomanCatholicclergyandcurtailedthedisciplinarypowersoftheChurch.In1875,civilceremonieswererequiredforcivilweddings.Hitherto,weddingsinchurcheswerecivillyrecognized.[55][56] KulturkampfbecamepartofBismarck'sforeign-policy,ashesoughttodestabilizeandweakenCatholicregimes,especiallyinBelgiumandFrance,buthehadlittlesuccess.[57] TheBritishambassadorOdoRussellreportedtoLondoninOctober1872thatBismarck'splanswerebackfiringbystrengtheningtheultramontane(pro-papal)positioninsideGermanCatholicism: "TheGermanBishops,whowerepoliticallypowerlessinGermanyandtheologicallyinoppositiontothePopeinRome,havenowbecomepowerfulpoliticalleadersinGermanyandenthusiasticdefendersofthenowinfallibleFaithofRome,united,disciplined,andthirstingformartyrdom,thankstoBismarck'suncalledforantiliberaldeclarationofWaronthefreedomtheyhadhithertopeacefullyenjoyed."[58] TheCatholicsreactedbyorganizingthemselvesandstrengtheningtheCentreParty.Bismarck,adevoutpietisticProtestant,wasalarmedthatsecularistsandsocialistswereusingtheKulturkampftoattackallreligion.Heabandoneditin1878topreservehisremainingpoliticalcapitalsincehenowneededtheCentrePartyvotesinhisnewbattleagainstsocialism.PiusIXdiedthatyear,replacedbythemorepragmaticPopeLeoXIIIwhonegotiatedawaymostoftheanti-Catholiclaws.ThePopekeptcontroloftheselectionofbishops,andCatholicsforthemostpartsupportedunificationandmostofBismarck'spolicies.However,theyneverforgothisculturewarandpreachedsolidaritytopresentorganizedresistanceshoulditeverberesumed.[59] Steinbergcomments:Theanti-CatholichysteriainmanyEuropeancountriesbelongsinitsEuropeansetting.Bismarck'scampaignwasnotuniqueinitself,buthisviolenttemper,intoleranceofopposition,andparanoiathatsecretforceshadconspiredtounderminehislife'swork,madeitmorerelentless.HisragedrovehimtoexaggeratethethreatfromCatholicactivitiesandtorespondwithveryextrememeasures....AsOdoRussellwrotetohismother,[LadyEmilyRussell,]"ThedemonicisstrongerinhimthaninanymanIknow."...Thebully,thedictator,andthe"demonic"combinedinhimwiththeself-pityandthehypochondriatocreateaconstantcrisisofauthority,whichheexploitedforhisownends....Opponents,friends,andsubordinatesallremarkedonBismarckas"demonic,"akindofuncanny,diabolicpersonalpowerovermenandaffairs.Intheseyearsofhisgreatestpower,hebelievedthathecoulddoanything.[60] Economy TheKruppfactoryinEssen,1880 In1873,GermanyandmuchofEuropeandAmericaenteredtheLongDepression,theGründerkrise.AdownturnhittheGermaneconomyforthefirsttimesinceindustrialdevelopmentbegantosurgeinthe1850s.Toaidfalteringindustries,theChancellorabandonedfreetradeandestablishedprotectionistimport-tariffs,whichalienatedtheNationalLiberalswhodemandedfreetrade.TheKulturkampfanditseffectshadalsostirreduppublicopinionagainstthepartythatsupportedit,andBismarckusedthisopportunitytodistancehimselffromtheNationalLiberals.ThatmarkedarapiddeclineinthesupportoftheNationalLiberals,andby1879theirclosetieswithBismarckhadallbutended.Bismarckinsteadreturnedtoconservativefactions,includingtheCentreParty,forsupport.HehelpedfostersupportfromtheconservativesbyenactingseveraltariffsprotectingGermanagricultureandindustryfromforeigncompetitorsin1879.[61] Germanisation ImperialandprovincialgovernmentbureaucraciesattemptedtoGermanisethestate'snationalminoritiessituatednearthebordersoftheempire:theDanesintheNorth,theFrancophonesintheWestandPolesintheEast.AsministerpresidentofPrussiaandasimperialchancellor,Bismarck"sortedpeopleintotheirlinguistic[andreligious]'tribes'";hepursuedapolicyofhostilityinparticulartowardthePoles,whichwasanexpedientrootedinPrussianhistory.[62]"HeneverhadaPoleamonghispeasants"workingtheBismarckianestates;itwastheeducatedPolishbourgeoisieandrevolutionarieshedenouncedfrompersonalexperience,and"becauseofthemhedislikedintellectualsinpolitics."[63]Bismarck'santagonismisrevealedinaprivatelettertohissisterin1861:"HammerthePolesuntiltheydespairofliving[...]Ihaveallthesympathyintheworldfortheirsituation,butifwewanttoexistwehavenochoicebuttowipethemout:wolvesareonlywhatGodmadethem,butweshootthemallthesamewhenwecangetatthem."[64][65][66]Laterthatyear,thepublicBismarckmodifiedhisbelligerenceandwrotetoPrussia'sforeignminister:"EverysuccessofthePolishnationalmovementisadefeatforPrussia,wecannotcarryonthefightagainstthiselementaccordingtotherulesofciviljustice,butonlyinaccordancewiththerulesofwar."[64][67] Socialism Seealso:StateSocialism(Germany) Bismarckviewedthegrowinginternationalsocialistmovementandthenon-violentGermanSocialDemocraticParty(SDP),inparticular,withalarm.SincetheSDP'sexistencewasprotectedbythetermsoftheGermanconstitution,Bismarckfoundwaystoweakenit,shortofanoutrightban.In1878heinstitutedthefirstofaseriesofrepressiveAnti-SocialistLawsforbiddingsocialistorganizationsandmeetings,outlawingtradeunions,closingnewspapers,andbanningthecirculationofsocialistliterature.TheSPDcontinuedtotakepartintheelections,butpoliceofficerswerenowempoweredtostop,search,andarrestSDPmembersandtheirleaders,numbersofwhomwerethentriedbypolicecourts.(Onewaysocialistsusedtogetaroundtheseharshmeasureswastorunasindependentcandidates,unaffiliatedwithanyparty.)Despite,orpossiblybecauseofthelaws,theSDPsteadilygainedsupportersandseatsintheReichstag. Duringthe1880s,Bismarckalsotriedtowintheallegianceofworkingclassestotheconservativeregimebyimplementingpositivesocialbenefits,suchasaccidentandold-ageinsurance,aswellaspioneeringaformofsocializedmedicine –reformswhicharenowgroupedunderthelabelStateSocialism.Bismarckhimselfcalleditthat,inadditiontoreferringtothemas"practicalChristianity.""Thewholeproblemisrootedinthequestion:doesthestatehavetheresponsibilitytocareforitshelplessfellowcitizens,ordoesitnot?Imaintainthatitdoeshavethisduty,andtobesure,notsimplytheChristianstate,asIoncepermittedmyselftoalludetowiththewords“practicalChristianity,”butrathereverystatebyitsverynature....Thereareobjectivesthatonlythestateinitstotalitycanfulfill.[...]Amongthelastmentionedobjectives[ofthestate]belongnationaldefense[and]thegeneralsystemoftransportation.[...]TothesebelongalsothehelpofpersonsindistressandthepreventionofsuchjustifiedcomplaintsasinfactprovideexcellentmaterialforexploitationbytheSocialDemocrats.Thatistheresponsibilityofthestatefromwhichthestatewillnotbeabletowithdrawinthelongrun. ["Bismarck’sReichstagSpeechontheLawforWorkmen’sCompensation,"p.4(March15,1884),seewebsiteGermanHistoryinDocumentsandImageshttps://germanhistorydocs.ghi-dc.org/pdf/eng/429_BismarckWorker's%20Comp_130.pdf. Yet,notwithstandingthesestrategies,Bismarckdidnotcompletelysucceedincrushingsocialism.SupportfortheSDPincreasedwitheachelection. Foreignpolicies OneofthesecretsofBismarck’ssuccesswashiscarefulin-depthstudyofthenationalinterestofalltheotherstates.Hetherebyavoidedthepitfallofmisunderstandingsthatledtoconflicts.EvenmoreimportantheidentifiedopportunitieswherebythenationalinterestofanotherstatewascongruenttothatofGermany,andadealcouldbeachievedtothebenefitofboth.[68] SummarizingBismarck'smasteryofdiplomacy,JonathanSteinbergargues: Ininternationalrelations,itmeantabsolutelynoemotionalcommitmenttoanyoftheactors.Diplomacyshould,hebelieved,dealwithrealities,calculationsofprobabilities,assessingtheinevitablemisstepsandsuddenlurchesbytheotheractors,states,andtheirstatesmen.ThechessboardcouldbeoverseenanditsuitedBismarck'speculiargeniusforpoliticstomaintaininhisheadmultiplepossiblemovesbyadversaries....Hehadhisgoalsinmindandachievedthem.Hewasandremainedtotheendmasterofthefinelytunedgameofdiplomacy.Heenjoyedit.Inforeignaffairsheneverlosthistemper,rarelyfeltillorsleepless.Hecouldoutsmartandoutplaythesmartestpeopleinotherstates.[69] ThepowerfulGermanarmywasunderthecontrolofBismarck'scloseallyFieldMarshallHelmuthvonMoltketheElder.Itwasamodelofprofessionalismalthoughitfoughtnowars.ThenavywassmallunderBismarck.[70] AfterfifteenyearsofwarfareintheCrimea,GermanyandFrance,Europebeganaperiodofpeacein1871.[71][72]WiththefoundingoftheGermanEmpirein1871,BismarckemergedasadecisivefigureinEuropeanhistoryfrom1871to1890.HeretainedcontroloverPrussiaandaswellastheforeignanddomesticpoliciesofthenewGermanEmpire.Bismarckhadbuilthisreputationasawar-makerbutchangedovernightintoapeacemaker.HeskillfullyusedbalanceofpowerdiplomacytomaintainGermany'spositioninaEuropewhich,despitemanydisputesandwarscares,remainedatpeace.ForhistorianEricHobsbawm,itwasBismarckwho"remainedundisputedworldchampionatthegameofmultilateraldiplomaticchessforalmosttwentyyearsafter1871,[and]devotedhimselfexclusively,andsuccessfully,tomaintainingpeacebetweenthepowers".[73]HistorianPaulKnaplundconcludes: AnetresultofthestrengthandmilitaryprestigeofGermanycombinedwithsituationscreatedormanipulatedbyherchancellorwasthatintheeightiesBismarckbecametheumpireinallseriousdiplomaticdisputes,whethertheyconcernedEurope,Africa,orAsia.QuestionssuchastheboundariesofBalkanstates,thetreatmentofArmeniansintheTurkishempireandofJewsinRumania,thefinancialaffairsofEgypt,RussianexpansionintheMiddleEast,thewarbetweenFranceandChina,andthepartitionofAfricahadtobereferredtoBerlin;Bismarckheldthekeytoalltheseproblems.[74] Bismarck'smainmistakewasgivingintotheArmyandtointensepublicdemandinGermanyforacquisitionoftheborderprovincesofAlsaceandLorraine,therebyturningFranceintoapermanent,deeply-committedenemy(seeFrench–Germanenmity).TheodoreZeldinsays,"RevengeandtherecoveryofAlsace-LorrainebecameaprincipalobjectofFrenchpolicyforthenextfortyyears.ThatGermanywasFrance'senemybecamethebasicfactofinternationalrelations."[75]Bismarck'ssolutionwastomakeFranceapariahnation,encouragingroyaltytoridiculeitsnewrepublicanstatus,andbuildingcomplexallianceswiththeothermajorpowers–Austria,Russia,andBritain–tokeepFranceisolateddiplomatically.[76][77]AkeyelementwastheLeagueoftheThreeEmperors,inwhichBismarckbroughttogetherrulersinBerlin,ViennaandSt.Petersburgtoguaranteeeachother'ssecurity,whileblockingoutFrance;itlasted1881–1887.[78][79] EarlyrelationswithEurope Mainarticle:InternationalrelationsoftheGreatPowers(1814–1919) 1234MapofBismarck'salliances1DualAlliance(1879)2LeagueoftheThreeEmperors(1881)3TripleAlliance(1882)4ReinsuranceTreaty(1887) Havingunifiedhisnation,BismarcknowdevotedhimselftopromotingpeaceinEuropewithhisskillsinstatesmanship.HewasforcedtocontendwithFrenchrevanchism,thedesiretoavengethelossesoftheFranco-PrussianWar.Bismarck,therefore,engagedinapolicyofdiplomaticallyisolatingFrancewhilemaintainingcordialrelationswithothernationsinEurope.HehadlittleinterestinnavalorcolonialentanglementsandthusavoideddiscordwithGreatBritain.Historiansemphasizethathewantednomoreterritorialgainsafter1871,andvigorouslyworkedtoformcross-linkingalliancesthatpreventedanywarinEuropefromstarting.By1878boththeLiberalandConservativespokesmeninBritainhailedhimasthechampionofpeaceinEurope.[80]A.J.P.Taylor,aleadingBritishdiplomatichistorian,concludesthat,"Bismarckwasanhonestbrokerofpeace;andhissystemofalliancescompelledeveryPower,whateveritswill,tofollowapeacefulcourse."[81] WellawarethatEuropewasskepticalofhispowerfulnewReich,BismarckturnedhisattentiontopreservingpeaceinEuropebasedonabalanceofpowerthatwouldallowGermany'seconomytoflourish.BismarckfearedthatahostilecombinationofAustria,France,andRussiawouldcrushGermany.Iftwoofthemwereallied,thenthethirdwouldallywithGermanyonlyifGermanyconcededexcessivedemands.Thesolutionwastoallywithtwoofthethree.In1873heformedtheLeagueoftheThreeEmperors(Dreikaiserbund),anallianceofWilhelm,TsarAlexanderIIofRussia,andEmperorFrancisJosephofAustria-Hungary.TogethertheywouldcontrolEasternEurope,makingsurethatrestiveethnicgroupssuchasthePoleswerekeptundercontrol.TheBalkansposedamoreseriousissue,andBismarck'ssolutionwastogiveAustriapredominanceinthewesternareas,andRussiaintheeasternareas.Thissystemcollapsedin1887.[82][83] In1872,aprotractedquarrelbegantofesterbetweenBismarckandCountHarryvonArnim,theimperialambassadortoFrance.Arnimsawhimselfasarivalandcompetitorforthechancellorship,buttherivalryescalatedoutofhand,andArnimtooksensitiverecordsfromembassyfilesatParistobackuphiscase.Hewasformallyaccusedofmisappropriatingofficialdocuments,indicted,triedandconvicted,finallyfleeingintoexilewherehedied.NooneagainopenlychallengedBismarckinforeignpolicymattersuntilhisresignation.[84] France Mainarticle:InternationalrelationsoftheGreatPowers(1814–1919)§ WarinSightcrisisof1875 Bismarckc.1875 FrancewasBismarck'smainproblem.PeacefulrelationswithFrancebecameimpossibleafter1871whenGermanyannexedalloftheprovinceofAlsaceandmuchofLorraine.PublicopiniondemandedittohumiliateFrance,andtheArmywanteditsmoredefensiblefrontiers.Bismarckreluctantlygavein—Frenchwouldneverforgetorforgive,hecalculated,somightaswelltaketheprovinces.(Thatwasamistakenassumption—afteraboutfiveyearstheFrenchdidcalmdownandconsidereditaminorissue.)[85]Germany'sforeignpolicyfellintoatrapwithnoexit."InretrospectitiseasytoseethattheannexationofAlsace-Lorrainewasatragicmistake."[86][87]OncetheannexationtookplacetheonlypolicythatmadesensewastryingtoisolateFrancesoithadnostrongallies.HoweverFrancecomplicatedBerlin'splanswhenitbecamefriendswithRussia.In1905aGermanplanforanalliancewithRussiafellthroughbecauseRussiawastooclosetoFrance.[88] Between1873and1877,GermanyrepeatedlymanipulatedtheinternalaffairsofFrance'sneighborstohurtFrance.BismarckputheavypressureonBelgium,Spain,andItalyhopingtoobtaintheelectionofliberal,anticlericalgovernments.HisplanwastopromoterepublicanisminFrancebyisolatingtheclerical-monarchistregimeofPresidentMacMahon.HehopedthatsurroundingFrancewithliberalstateswouldhelptheFrenchrepublicansdefeatMacMahonandhisreactionarysupporters.[57] Thebullying,however,almostgotoutofhandinmid-1875,whenaneditorialentitled"Krieg-in-Sicht"("WarinSight")waspublishedinaBerlinnewspaperclosetothegovernment,thePost.TheeditorialindicatedthathighlyinfluentialGermanswerealarmedbyFrance'srapidrecoveryfromdefeatin1875anditsannouncementofanincreaseinthesizeofitsarmy,aswellastalksoflaunchingapreventivewaragainstFrance.Bismarckdeniedknowingaboutthearticleaheadoftime,buthecertainlyknewaboutthetalkofpreventivewar.Theeditorialproducedawarscare,withBritainandRussiawarningthattheywouldnottolerateapreventivewaragainstFrance.Bismarckhadnodesireforwareither,andthecrisissoonblewover.ItwasarareinstancewhereBismarckwasoutmaneuveredandembarrassedbyhisopponents,butfromthathelearnedanimportantlesson.ItforcedhimtotakeintoaccountthefearandalarmthathisbullyingandGermany'sfast-growingpowerwascausingamongitsneighbors,andreinforcedhisdeterminationthatGermanyshouldworkinproactivefashiontopreservethepeaceinEurope,ratherthanpassivelyleteventstaketheirowncourseandreactingtothem.[89][90][91][92] Italy BismarckmaintainedgoodrelationswithItaly,althoughhehadapersonaldislikeforItaliansandtheircountry.[93]HecanbeseenasamarginalcontributortoItalianunification.Politicssurroundingthe1866Austro-PrussianWarallowedItalytoannexVenetia,whichhadbeenakronland("crownland")oftheAustrianEmpiresincethe1815CongressofVienna.Inaddition,FrenchmobilizationfortheFranco-PrussianWarof1870–1871madeitnecessaryforNapoleonIIItowithdrawhistroopsfromRomeandThePapalStates.Withoutthesetwoevents,Italianunificationwouldhavebeenamoreprolongedprocess. Russia AfterRussia'svictoryovertheOttomanEmpireintheRusso-TurkishWarof1877–78,BismarckhelpednegotiateasettlementattheCongressofBerlin.TheTreatyofBerlinrevisedtheearlierTreatyofSanStefano,reducingthesizeofnewlyindependentBulgaria(apro-Russianstateatthattime).BismarckandotherEuropeanleadersopposedthegrowthofRussianinfluenceandtriedtoprotecttheintegrityoftheOttomanEmpire(seeEasternQuestion).Asaresult,Russo-Germanrelationsfurtherdeteriorated,withtheRussianchancellorGorchakovdenouncingBismarckforcompromisinghisnation'svictory.TherelationshipwasadditionallystrainedduetoGermany'sprotectionisttradepolicies.SomeintheGermanmilitaryclamoredforapreemptivewarwithRussia;Bismarckrefused,stating:"Preemptivewarislikecommittingsuicideforfearofdeath."[94] BismarckrealizedthatbothRussiaandBritainconsideredcontrolofcentralAsiaahighpriority,dubbedthe"GreatGame".Germanyhadnodirectstakes,howeveritsdominanceofEuropewasenhancedwhenRussiantroopswerebasedasfarawayfromGermanyaspossible.Overtwodecades,1871–1890,hemaneuveredtohelptheBritish,hopingtoforcetheRussianstocommitmoresoldierstoAsia.[95] TripleAlliance Mainarticle:TripleAlliance(1882) TheLeagueoftheThreeEmperorshavingfallenapart,BismarcknegotiatedtheDualAlliancewithAustria-Hungary,inwhicheachguaranteedtheotheragainstRussianattack.HealsonegotiatedtheTripleAlliancein1882withAustria-HungaryandItaly,andItalyandAustria-Hungarysoonreachedthe"MediterraneanAgreement"withBritain.AttemptstoreconcileGermanyandRussiadidnothavealastingeffect:theThreeEmperors'Leaguewasre-establishedin1881butquicklyfellapart,endingRussian-Austrian-Prussiansolidarity,whichhadexistedinvariousformssince1813.BismarckthereforenegotiatedthesecretReinsuranceTreatyof1887withRussia,inordertopreventFranco-RussianencirclementofGermany.BothpowerspromisedtoremainneutraltowardsoneanotherunlessRussiaattackedAustria-Hungary.However,afterBismarck'sdeparturefromofficein1890,theTreatywasnotrenewed,thuscreatingacriticalproblemforGermanyintheeventofawar.[citationneeded] Coloniesandimperialism HoistingtheGermanflagatMioko,GermanNewGuineain1884 Bismarckhadopposedcolonialacquisitions,arguingthattheburdenofobtaining,maintaining,anddefendingsuchpossessionswouldoutweighanypotentialbenefit.Hefeltthatcoloniesdidnotpayforthemselves,thattheGermanformalbureaucraticsystemwouldnotworkwellintheeasy-goingtropics,andthatthediplomaticdisputescoloniesbroughtwoulddistractGermanyfromitscentralinterest,Europeitself.[96]AsforFrenchdesignsonMorocco,Chlodwig,PrinceofHohenlohe-SchillingsfürstwroteinhismemoirsthatBismarckhadtoldhimthatGermany"couldonlybepleasedifFrancetookpossessionofthecountry"since"shewouldthenbeveryoccupied"anddistractedfromthelossofAlsace-Lorraine.[97]However,in1883–84hesuddenlyreversedhimselfandovernightbuiltacolonialempireinAfricaandtheSouthPacific.TheBerlinConferenceof1884–85organizedbyBismarckcanbeseenastheformalizationoftheScrambleforAfrica. HistorianshavedebatedtheexactmotivebehindBismarck'ssuddenandshort-livedmove.[98]HewasawarethatpublicopinionhadstartedtodemandcoloniesforreasonsofGermanprestige.Healsowantedtoundercuttheanti-colonialliberalswhoweresponsoredbytheCrownPrince,who—givenWilhelmI'soldage—mightsoonbecomeemperorandremoveBismarck.[99][100]BismarckwasinfluencedbyHamburgmerchantsandtraders,hisneighborsatFriedrichsruh.TheestablishmentoftheGermancolonialempireproceededsmoothly,startingwithGermanNewGuineain1884.[96][101] EuropeanofficialsstakingclaimstoAfricaintheConferenceofBerlinin1884 OtherEuropeannations,ledbyBritainandFrance,wereacquiringcoloniesinarapidfashion(seeNewImperialism).BismarckthereforemadethedecisiontojointheScrambleforAfrica.Germany'snewcoloniesincludedTogoland(nowTogoandpartofGhana),GermanKamerun(nowCameroonandpartofNigeria),GermanEastAfrica(nowRwanda,Burundi,andthemainlandpartofTanzania),andGermanSouth-WestAfrica(nowNamibia).TheBerlinConference(1884–85)establishedregulationsfortheacquisitionofAfricancolonies;inparticular,itprotectedfreetradeincertainpartsoftheCongoBasin.GermanyalsoacquiredcoloniesinthePacific,suchasGermanNewGuinea.[102] Hans-UlrichWehlerarguesthathisimperialisticpolicieswerebasedoninternalpoliticalandeconomicforces;theywerenothisresponsetoexternalpressure.Atfirsthepromotedliberalgoalsoffreetradecommercialexpansionisminordertomaintaineconomicgrowthandsocialstability,aswellaspreservethesocialandpoliticalpowerstructure.Howeverhechanged,brokewiththeliberals,andadoptedtariffstowinCatholicsupportandshoreuphispoliticalbase.Germany'simperialisminthe1880sderivedlessfromstrengthandinsteadrepresentedBismarck'ssolutiontounstableindustrialization.Protectionismmadeforunityatatimewhenclassconflictwasrising.Wehlersaysthechancellor'sultimategoalwastostrengthentraditionalsocialandpowerstructures,andavoidamajorwar.[100] Avoidingwar FranzvonLenbach'sportraitofBismarckinhis75thyear InFebruary1888,duringaBulgariancrisis,BismarckaddressedtheReichstagonthedangersofaEuropeanwar: HewarnedoftheimminentpossibilitythatGermanywillhavetofightontwofronts;hespokeofthedesireforpeace;thenhesetforththeBalkancaseforwaranddemonstrateditsfutility: "Bulgaria,thatlittlecountrybetweentheDanubeandtheBalkans,isfarfrombeinganobjectofadequateimportance...forwhichtoplungeEuropefromMoscowtothePyrenees,andfromtheNorthSeatoPalermo,intoawarwhoseissuenomancanforesee.Attheendoftheconflictweshouldscarcelyknowwhywehadfought."[103] BismarckalsorepeatedhisemphaticwarningagainstanyGermanmilitaryinvolvementinBalkandisputes.BismarckhadfirstmadethisfamouscommenttotheReichstaginDecember1876,whentheBalkanrevoltsagainsttheOttomanEmpirethreatenedtoextendtoawarbetweenAustriaandRussia: Onlyayearlater[1876],heisfacedbythealternativeofespousingthecauseofRussiaorthatofAustria.Immediatelyafterthelastcrisis,inthesummerof1875,themutualjealousiesbetweenRussiaandAustriahadbeenrenderedacutebythefreshrisingsintheBalkansagainsttheTurks.NowtheissueshunguponBismarck'sdecision.Immediatelyafterthepeace,hehadtriedtoparalysetheBalkanrivalsbytheformationoftheThreeEmperors'League."Ihavenothoughtofintervening,"hesaidprivately."ThatmightprecipitateaEuropeanwar....IfIweretoespousethecauseofoneoftheparties,Francewouldpromptlystrikeablowontheotherside....Iamholdingtwopowerfulheraldicbeastsbytheircollars,andamkeepingthemapartfortworeasons:firstofall,lesttheyshouldtearoneanothertopieces;andsecondly,lesttheyshouldcometoanunderstandingatourexpense."IntheReichstag,hepopularisesthesameideainthewords:"IamopposedtothenotionofanysortofactiveparticipationofGermanyinthesematters,solongasIcanseenoreasontosupposethatGermaninterestsareinvolved,nointerestsonbehalfofwhichitisworthourrisking—excusemyplainspeaking—thehealthybonesofoneofourPomeranianmusketeers."[104] Aleadingdiplomatichistorianoftheera,WilliamL.LangersumsupBismarck'stwodecadesasChancellor: WhateverelsemaybesaidoftheintricatealliancesystemevolvedbytheGermanChancellor,itmustbeadmittedthatitworkedandthatittidedEuropeoveraperiodofseveralcriticalyearswithoutarupture....therewas,asBismarckhimselfsaid,apremiumuponthemaintenanceofpeace.[105] Langerconcludes: Hishadbeenagreatcareer,beginningwiththreewarsineightyearsandendingwithaperiodof20yearsduringwhichheworkedforthepeaceofEurope,despitecountlessopportunitiestoembarkonfurtherenterpriseswithmorethanevenchanceofsuccess....Nootherstatesmanofhisstandinghadeverbeforeshownthesamegreatmoderationandsoundpoliticalsenseofthepossibleanddesirable....BismarckatleastdeservesfullcreditforhavingsteeredEuropeanpoliticsthroughthisdangeroustransitionalperiodwithoutseriousconflictbetweenthegreatpowers."[106] Sociallegislation PhotoofChancellorBismarckinthe1880s. Earlylegislation Indomesticpolicy,Bismarckpursuedaconservativestate-buildingstrategydesignedtomakeordinaryGermans—notjusthisownJunkerelite—moreloyaltothroneandempire,implementingthemodernwelfarestateinGermanyinthe1880s.[107]AccordingtoKeesvanKersbergenandBarbaraVis,hisstrategywas: grantingsocialrightstoenhancetheintegrationofahierarchicalsociety,toforgeabondbetweenworkersandthestatesoastostrengthenthelatter,tomaintaintraditionalrelationsofauthoritybetweensocialandstatusgroups,andtoprovideacountervailingpoweragainstthemodernistforcesofliberalismandsocialism.[108] BismarckworkedcloselywithlargeindustryandaimedtostimulateGermaneconomicgrowthbygivingworkersgreatersecurity.[109]AsecondaryconcernwastrumpingtheSocialists,whohadnowelfareproposalsoftheirownandopposedBismarck's.BismarckespeciallylistenedtoHermannWagenerandTheodorLohmann,adviserswhopersuadedhimtogiveworkersacorporatestatusinthelegalandpoliticalstructuresofthenewGermanstate.[110]InMarch1884,Bismarckdeclared: Therealgrievanceoftheworkeristheinsecurityofhisexistence;heisnotsurethathewillalwayshavework,heisnotsurethathewillalwaysbehealthy,andheforeseesthathewillonedaybeoldandunfittowork.Ifhefallsintopoverty,evenifonlythroughaprolongedillness,heisthencompletelyhelpless,lefttohisowndevices,andsocietydoesnotcurrentlyrecognizeanyrealobligationtowardshimbeyondtheusualhelpforthepoor,evenifhehasbeenworkingallthetimeeversofaithfullyanddiligently.Theusualhelpforthepoor,however,leavesalottobedesired,especiallyinlargecities,whereitisverymuchworsethaninthecountry.[111] Bismarck'sideawastoimplementwelfareprogramsthatwereacceptabletoconservativeswithoutanysocialisticaspects.Hewasdubiousaboutlawsprotectingworkersattheworkplace,suchassafeworkingconditions,limitationofworkhours,andtheregulationofwomen'sandchildlabor.Hebelievedthatsuchregulationwouldforceworkersandemployerstoreduceworkandproductionandthusharmtheeconomy.BismarckopeneddebateonthesubjectinNovember1881intheImperialMessagetotheReichstag,usingthetermpracticalChristianitytodescribehisprogram.[112]Bismarck'sprogramcentredsquarelyoninsuranceprogramsdesignedtoincreaseproductivity,andfocusthepoliticalattentionsofGermanworkersonsupportingtheJunkers'government.Theprogramincludedsicknessinsurance,accidentinsurance,disabilityinsurance,andaretirementpension,noneofwhichweretheninexistencetoanygreatdegree. BasedonBismarck'smessage,theReichstagfiledthreebillstodealwiththeconceptsofaccidentandsicknessinsurance.Thesubjectsofretirementpensionsanddisabilityinsurancewereplacedontheback-burnerforthetimebeing.[113]ThesociallegislationimplementedbyBismarckinthe1880splayedakeyroleinthesharp,rapiddeclineofGermanemigrationtoAmerica.Youngmenconsideringemigrationlookedatnotonlythegapbetweenhigherhourly"directwages"intheUnitedStatesandGermanybutalsothedifferentialin"indirectwages",socialbenefits,whichfavoredstayinginGermany.TheyoungmenwenttoGermanindustrialcities,sothatBismarck'sinsurancesystempartlyoffsetlowwageratesinGermanyandfurtherreducedtheemigrationrate.[114] SicknessInsuranceLawof1883 Thefirstsuccessfulbill,passedin1883,wastheSicknessInsuranceBill.Bismarckconsideredtheprogram,establishedtoprovidesicknessinsuranceforGermanindustriallaborers,theleastimportantandtheleastpoliticallytroublesome.[115][116]Thehealthservicewasestablishedonalocalbasis,withthecostdividedbetweenemployersandtheemployed.Theemployerscontributedonethird,andtheworkerscontributedtwo-thirds.Theminimumpaymentsformedicaltreatmentandsickpayforupto13weekswerelegallyfixed.Theindividuallocalhealthbureauswereadministeredbyacommitteeelectedbythemembersofeachbureau,andthismovehadtheunintendedeffectofestablishingamajorityrepresentationfortheworkersonaccountoftheirlargefinancialcontribution.ThisworkedtotheadvantageoftheSocialDemocratswho,throughheavyworkermembership,achievedtheirfirstsmallfootholdinpublicadministration.[113] Accordingtoa2019study,thehealthinsurancelegislationcausedasubstantialreductioninmortality.[117] AccidentInsuranceLawof1884 Bismarck'sgovernmenthadtosubmitthreedraftbillsbeforeitcouldgetonepassedbytheReichstagin1884.Bismarckhadoriginallyproposedthatthefederalgovernmentpayaportionoftheaccidentinsurancecontribution.BismarckwantedtodemonstratethewillingnessoftheGermangovernmenttoreducethehardshipexperiencedbytheGermanworkerssoastoweanthemawayfromsupportingthevariousleft-wingparties,mostimportantlytheSocialDemocrats.TheNationalLiberalstookthisprogramtobeanexpressionofStateSocialism,againstwhichtheyweredeadset.TheCentrePartywasafraidoftheexpansionoffederalpowerattheexpenseofstates'rights. Asaresult,theonlywaytheprogramcouldbepassedatallwasfortheentireexpensetobeunderwrittenbytheemployers.Tofacilitatethis,BismarckarrangedfortheadministrationofthisprogramtobeplacedinthehandsofDerArbeitgeberverbandindenberuflichenKorporationen(theOrganizationofEmployersinOccupationalCorporations).Thisorganizationestablishedcentralandbureaucraticinsuranceofficesonthefederal,andinsomecasesthestateleveltoactuallyadministertheprogramwhosebenefitskickedintoreplacethesicknessinsuranceprogramasofthe14thweek.Itpaidformedicaltreatmentandapensionofuptotwo-thirdsofearnedwagesiftheworkerwerefullydisabled.Thisprogramwasexpanded,in1886,toincludeagriculturalworkers.[113] OldAgeandDisabilityInsuranceLawof1889 Theoldagepensionprogram,insuranceequallyfinancedbyemployersandworkers,wasdesignedtoprovideapensionannuityforworkerswhoreachedtheageof70.Unliketheaccidentandsicknessinsuranceprograms,thisprogramcoveredallcategoriesofworkers(industrial,agrarian,artisansandservants)fromthestart.Also,unliketheothertwoprograms,theprinciplethatthenationalgovernmentshouldcontributeaportionoftheunderwritingcost,withtheothertwoportionsproratedaccordingly,wasacceptedwithoutquestion.Thedisabilityinsuranceprogramwasintendedtobeusedbythosepermanentlydisabled.Thistime,thestateorprovincesupervisedtheprogramsdirectly.[118] Downfall Finalyearsandforcedresignation LenbachpaintingofBismarckinretirement(1895) In1888KaiserWilhelmIdied,leavingthethronetohisson,FriedrichIII.Thenewmonarchwasalreadysufferingfromcancerofthelarynxanddiedafterreigningforonly99days.Hewassucceededbyhisson,WilhelmII,whoopposedBismarck'scarefulforeignpolicy,preferringvigorousandrapidexpansiontoenlargeGermany's"placeinthesun".[119] BismarckwassixteenyearsolderthanFriedrich;beforethelatterbecameterminallyill,BismarckdidnotexpecthewouldlivetoseeWilhelmascendtothethroneandthushadnostrategytodealwithhim.ConflictsbetweenWilhelmandhischancellorsoonpoisonedtheirrelationship.TheirfinalsplitoccurredafterBismarcktriedtoimplementfar-reachinganti-socialistlawsinearly1890.TheKartellmajorityintheReichstag,includingtheamalgamatedConservativePartyandtheNationalLiberalParty,waswillingtomakemostofthelawspermanent.However,itwassplitaboutthelawgrantingthepolicethepowertoexpelsocialistagitatorsfromtheirhomes,apowerthathadbeenusedexcessivelyattimesagainstpoliticalopponents.TheNationalLiberalsrefusedtomakethislawpermanent,whiletheConservativessupportedonlytheentiretyofthebill,threateningtoandeventuallyvetoingtheentirebillinsessionbecauseBismarckwouldnotagreetoamodifiedbill.[120] Asthedebatecontinued,Wilhelmbecameincreasinglyinterestedinsocialproblems,especiallythetreatmentofmineworkersduringtheirstrikein1889.Keepingwithhisactivepolicyingovernment,heroutinelyinterruptedBismarckinCounciltomakeclearhissocialviews.BismarcksharplydisagreedwithWilhelm'spoliciesandworkedtocircumventthem.EventhoughWilhelmsupportedthealteredanti-socialistbill,Bismarckpushedforhissupporttovetothebillinitsentirety.WhenhisargumentscouldnotconvinceWilhelm,Bismarckbecameexcitedandagitateduntiluncharacteristicallyblurtingouthismotivetoseethebillfail:tohavethesocialistsagitateuntilaviolentclashoccurredthatcouldbeusedasapretexttocrushthem.Wilhelmcounteredthathewasnotwillingtoopenhisreignwithabloodycampaignagainsthisownsubjects.Thenextday,afterrealizinghisblunder,BismarckattemptedtoreachacompromisewithWilhelmbyagreeingtohissocialpolicytowardsindustrialworkersandevensuggestedaEuropeancounciltodiscussworkingconditions,presidedoverbytheEmperor.[121] Still,aturnofeventseventuallyledtohisbreakingwithWilhelm.Bismarck,feelingpressuredandunappreciatedbytheEmperorandunderminedbyambitiousadvisers,refusedtosignaproclamationregardingtheprotectionofworkersalongwithWilhelm,aswasrequiredbytheGermanconstitution.HisrefusaltosignwasapparentlytoprotestWilhelm'sever-increasinginterferencewithBismarck'spreviouslyunquestionedauthority.BismarckalsoworkedbehindthescenestobreaktheContinentallabourcouncilonwhichWilhelmhadsethisheart.[122] ThefinalbreakcameasBismarcksearchedforanewparliamentarymajority,ashisKartellwasvotedfrompowerasaconsequenceoftheanti-socialistbillfiasco.TheremainingforcesintheReichstagweretheCatholicCentrePartyandtheConservativeParty.BismarckwishedtoformanewblockwiththeCentrePartyandinvitedLudwigWindthorst,theparliamentaryleader,todiscussanalliance.ThatwouldbeBismarck'slastpoliticalmaneuver.UponhearingaboutWindthorst'svisit,Wilhelmwasfurious.[123] Inaparliamentarystate,theheadofgovernmentdependsontheconfidenceoftheparliamentarymajorityandhastherighttoformcoalitionstoensuretheirpolicieshavemajoritysupport.However,inGermany,theChancellordependedontheconfidenceoftheEmperoralone,andWilhelmbelievedthattheEmperorhadtherighttobeinformedbeforehisminister'smeeting.AfteraheatedargumentinBismarck'soffice,Wilhelm—towhomBismarckhadshownaletterfromTsarAlexanderIIIdescribingWilhelmasa"badlybrought-upboy"—stormedout,afterfirstorderingtherescindingoftheCabinetOrderof1851,whichhadforbiddenPrussianCabinetMinistersfromreportingdirectlytotheKingofPrussiaandrequiredtheminsteadtoreportviatheChancellor.Bismarck,forcedforthefirsttimeintoasituationthathecouldnotusetohisadvantage,wroteablisteringletterofresignation,decryingWilhelm'sinterferenceinforeignanddomesticpolicy.Theletter,however,waspublishedonlyafterBismarck'sdeath.[124][125] BismarckresignedatWilhelmII'sinsistenceon18March1890,attheageofseventy-five.[126]HewassucceededasImperialChancellorandMinisterPresidentofPrussiabyLeovonCaprivi.[127]Afterhisdismissalhewaspromotedtotherankof"Colonel-GeneralwiththeDignityofFieldMarshal",so-calledbecausetheGermanArmydidnotappointfullFieldMarshalsinpeacetime.Hewasalsogivenanewtitle,DukeofLauenburg,whichhejokedwouldbeusefulwhentravelingincognito.HewassoonelectedtotheReichstagasaNationalLiberalinBennigsen'soldandsupposedlysafeHamburgseat,buthewassohumiliatedbybeingtakentoasecondballotbyaSocialDemocratopponentthatheneveractuallytookuphisseat.Bismarckenteredintoresentfulretirement,livedinFriedrichsruhnearHamburgandsometimesonhisestatesatVarzin,andwaitedinvaintobecalleduponforadviceandcounsel.Afterhiswife'sdeathon27November1894,hishealthworsenedandoneyearlaterhefinallybecameafull-timewheelchairuser.[128][129][130][131] Death Bismarckonhisdeathbed,30July1898 Bismarckspenthisfinalyearscomposinghismemoirs(GedankenundErinnerungen,orThoughtsandMemories),aworklaudedbyhistorians.[132]InthememoirsBismarckcontinuedhisfeudwithWilhelmIIbyattackinghim,andbyincreasingthedramaaroundeveryeventandbyoftenpresentinghimselfinafavorablelight.HealsopublishedthetextoftheReinsuranceTreatywithRussia,amajorbreachofnationalsecurity,forwhichanindividualoflesserstatuswouldhavebeenheavilyprosecuted. Bismarck'shealthbegantofailin1896.Hewasdiagnosedwithgangreneinhisfoot,butrefusedtoaccepttreatmentforit;asaresulthehaddifficultywalkingandoftenusedawheelchair.ByJuly1898hewasafull-timewheelchairuser,hadtroublebreathing,andwasalmostconstantlyfeverishandinpain.Hishealthralliedmomentarilyonthe28th,butthensharplydeterioratedoverthenexttwodays.Hediedjustaftermidnighton30July1898,attheageofeighty-threeinFriedrichsruh,[133]whereheisentombedintheBismarckMausoleum.HewassucceededasPrinceBismarckbyhiseldestson,Herbert.BismarckmanagedaposthumoussnubofWilhelmIIbyhavinghisownsarcophagusinscribedwiththewords,"AloyalGermanservantofEmperorWilhelmI".[134] Legacyandmemory Reputation AstatueofBismarckinBerlin Historianshavereachedabroadconsensusonthecontent,functionandimportanceoftheimageofBismarckwithinGermany'spoliticalcultureoverthepast125years.[135][136]AccordingtoSteinberg,hisachievementsin1862–71were"thegreatestdiplomaticandpoliticalachievementbyanyleaderinthelasttwocenturies."[137]Bismarck'smostimportantlegacyistheunificationofGermany.GermanyhadexistedasacollectionofhundredsofseparateprincipalitiesandFreeCitiessincetheformationoftheHolyRomanEmpire.OverthecenturiesvariousrulershadtriedtounifytheGermanstateswithoutsuccessuntilBismarck.LargelyasaresultofBismarck'sefforts,thevariousGermankingdomswereunitedintoasinglecountry.[citationneeded] Followingunification,GermanybecameoneofthemostpowerfulnationsinEurope.Bismarck'sastute,cautious,andpragmaticforeignpoliciesallowedGermanytopeacefullyretainthepowerfulpositionintowhichhehadbroughtit,whilemaintainingamiablediplomacywithalmostallEuropeannations.FrancewasthemainexceptionbecauseoftheFranco–PrussianWarandBismarck'sharshsubsequentpolicies;FrancebecameoneofGermany'smostbitterenemiesinEurope.Austria,too,wasweakenedbythecreationofaGermanEmpire,thoughtoamuchlesserextentthanFrance.BismarckbelievedthataslongasBritain,RussiaandItalywereassuredofthepeacefulnatureoftheGermanEmpire,Frenchbelligerencycouldbecontained.[138]Hisdiplomaticfeatswereundone,however,byKaiserWilhelmII,whosepoliciesunifiedotherEuropeanpowersagainstGermanyintimeforWorldWarI. HistoriansstressthatBismarck'speace-oriented,"saturatedcontinentaldiplomacy"wasincreasinglyunpopularbecauseitconsciouslyreinedinanyexpansionistdrives.TheGermanpublicturnedtoanexpansioniststanceinstead.IndramaticcontrasttoBismarck'sapproachstandstheambitionofWilhelmII'sWeltpolitiktosecuretheReich'sfuturethroughexpansion,leadingtoWorldWarI.Likewise,Bismarck'spolicytodenythemilitaryadominantvoiceinforeignpoliticaldecisionmakingwasoverturnedby1914asGermanywasincreasinglyundermilitarycontrol.[139]DuringthewartheObersteHeeresleitungestablishedavirtualmilitarydictatorship,largelyignoringchancellor,emperorandReichstag. Bismarckwasaconservativeor"whiterevolutionary".Hetaughtconservativestobenationalistsandsupportersofwelfareprograms,therebyenlargingtheirbaseofsupportandweakeningthesocialistmovement.AfterworkingcloselywithliberalsandfightingtheCatholics,heswitchedandaddedtheconservativeCatholicstohisbasewhileopposingtheliberals.[140][141]However,HenryKissingernotesthedangersofthislegacyforGermanyinthe20thcentury.HesothoroughlyunderminedliberalismthatWeimarGermanynevercouldmakeliberalismsucceed:"Nationalismunleavenedbyliberalismturnedchauvinistic,andliberalismwithoutresponsibilitygrewsterile."[142] Bismarck'spunchysayingswereborrowedbyhissuccessors,includingtheNazis.[143]This1942NazipropagandaposterquotesBismarck:"WhentheGermansholdtogether,theybeatthedeviloutofhell." AccordingtohistorianNormanRich:Nevertheless,thesuccessofBismarck'sdiplomacy–andIthinkitwasonthewholesuccessful–didnotdependonanysystembutonhisqualitiesasadiplomat.Ofthesethemostimportantwasnothisgeniusbuthisattentionto...thefundamentalsofdiplomacy:adispassionateevaluationofnationalinterests;caretoavoidchallengingthenationalinterestsofothergreatpowers;andanawarenessofthequalityofnationalpoweranditslimitations.Itwastheneglectofthesefundamentalswhich,morethananythingelse,broughtdisastertohissuccessors.[144] Bismarck'spsychologyandpersonaltraitshavenotbeensofavourablyreceivedbyscholars.ThehistorianJonathanSteinbergportraysademonicgeniuswhowasdeeplyvengeful,eventowardhisclosestfriendsandfamilymembers: [Bismarck'sfriend,GermandiplomatKurdvonSchlözer]begantoseeBismarckasakindofmaligngeniuswho,behindthevariouspostures,concealedanice-coldcontemptforhisfellowhumanbeingsandamethodicaldeterminationtocontrolandruinthem.Hiseasychatcombinedblunttruths,partialrevelations,andoutrightdeceptions.Hisextraordinarydoubleabilitytoseehowgroupswouldreactandthewillingnesstouseviolencetomakethemobey,thecapacitytoreadgroupbehaviorandtheforcetomakethemmovetohiswill,gavehimthechancetoexercisewhat[Steinberghas]calledhis"sovereignself".[145] Evanssayshewas"intimidatingandunscrupulous,playingtoothers'frailties,nottheirstrengths."[146]Britishhistorians,includingSteinberg,Evans,Taylor,andPalmer,seeBismarckasanambivalentfigure,undoubtedlyamanofgreatskillbutwholeftnolastingsysteminplacetoguidesuccessorslessskilledthanhimself.Beingacommittedmonarchisthimself,BismarckallowednoeffectiveconstitutionalcheckonthepoweroftheEmperor,thusplacingatimebombinthefoundationoftheGermanythathecreated.JonathanSteinberg,inhis2011biographyofBismarckwrotethathewas:apoliticalgeniusofaveryunusualkind[whosesuccess]restedonseveralsetsofconflictingcharacteristicsamongwhichbrutal,disarminghonestymingledwiththewilesanddeceitsofaconfidenceman.Heplayedhispartswithperfectself-confidence,yetmixedthemwithrage,anxiety,illness,hypochrondria,andirrationality....Heuseddemocracywhenitsuitedhim,negotiatedwithrevolutionariesandthedangerousFerdinandLassalle,thesocialistwhomighthavecontestedhisauthority.Heutterlydominatedhiscabinetministerswithasovereigncontemptandblackenedtheirreputationsassoonashenolongerneededthem.Heoutwittedtheparliamentaryparties,eventhestrongestofthem,andbetrayedallthose...whohadputhimintopower.By1870evenhisclosestfriends...realizedthattheyhadhelpedputademonicfigureintopower.[147] Duringmostofhisnearlythirty-year-longtenure,Bismarckheldundisputedcontroloverthegovernment'spolicies.HewaswellsupportedbyhisfriendAlbrechtvonRoon,thewarminister,aswellastheleaderofthePrussianarmyHelmuthvonMoltke.Bismarck'sdiplomaticmovesreliedonavictoriousPrussianmilitary,andthesetwomengaveBismarckthevictoriesheneededtoconvincethesmallerGermanstatestojoinPrussia.[148] Bismarcktookstepstosilenceorrestrainpoliticalopposition,asevidencedbylawsrestrictingthefreedomofthepress,andtheanti-socialistlaws.Hewagedaculturewar(Kulturkampf)againsttheCatholicChurch.HewaslosingwhenherealizedtheconservatismoftheCatholicsmadethemnaturalalliesagainsttheSocialists.Hethenswitchedpositions,winningCatholic/Centresupportandopposingtheliberals.HiskingWilhelmIrarelychallengedtheChancellor'sdecisions;onseveraloccasions,Bismarckobtainedhismonarch'sapprovalbythreateningtoresign.However,WilhelmIIintendedtogovernthecountryhimself,makingtheoustingofBismarckoneofhisfirsttasksasKaiser.Bismarck'ssuccessorsasChancellorweremuchlessinfluential,aspowerwasconcentratedintheEmperor'shands. Memorials MemorialtotheyoungBismarckattheRudelsburginSaxony-AnhaltTheBismarckMonument,Hamburg Immediatelyafterheleftoffice,citizensstartedtopraisehimandestablishedfundstobuildmonumentsliketheBismarckMemorialortowersdedicatedtohim.ThroughoutGermany,theaccoladeswereunending;severalbuildingswerenamedinhishonour,portraitsofhimwerecommissionedfromartistssuchasFranzvonLenbachandC.W.Allersandbooksabouthimbecamebest-sellers.[citationneeded]ThefirstmonumentbuiltinhishonourwastheoneatBadKissingenerectedin1877. Numerousstatuesandmemorialsdotthecities,towns,andcountrysideofGermany,includingthefamousBismarckMemorialinBerlinandnumerousBismarcktowersonfourcontinents.TheonlymemorialdepictinghimasastudentatGöttingenUniversity(togetherwithadog,possiblyhisReichshundTyras)andasamemberofhisCorpsHannoverawasre-erectedin2006attheRudelsburg.[149] Thegleamingwhite1906BismarckMonumentinthecityofHamburg,standsinthecentreoftheSt.Paulidistrict,andisthelargest,andprobablybest-known,memorialtoBismarckworldwide.Thestatuesdepictedhimasmassive,monolithic,rigidandunambiguous.[150]Twowarshipswerenamedinhishonour,theSMS BismarckoftheGermanImperialNavy,andtheBismarckfromtheWorldWarII–era. Bismarck:memoryandmyth BismarckwasthemostmemorablefigureinGermanydowntothe1930s.Thedominantmemorywasthegreatheroofthe1860s,whodefeatedallenemies,especiallyFrance,andunifiedGermanytobecomethemostpowerfulmilitaryanddiplomaticforceintheworld.Ofcourse,therewerenomonumentscelebratingBismarck'sdevotiontothecauseofEuropeanpeaceafter1871.[151]ButtherewereotherGermanmemories.HisfellowJunkersweredisappointed,asPrussiaafter1871becameswallowedupanddominatedbytheGermanEmpire.Liberalintellectuals,fewinnumberbutdominantintheuniversitiesandbusinesshouses,celebratedhisachievementofthenationalstate,aconstitutionalmonarchy,andtheruleoflaw,andforestallingrevolutionandmarginalizingradicalism.[152][153]SocialDemocratsandlaborleadershadalwaysbeenhistarget,andheremainedtheirbêtenoire.[154]CatholicscouldnotforgettheKulturkampfandremaineddistrustful.EspeciallynegativewerethePoleswhohatedhisGermanizationprograms.[155] RobertGerwarthshowsthattheBismarckmyth,builtuppredominantlyduringhisyearsofretirementandevenmorestridentlyafterhisdeath,provedapowerfulrhetoricalandideologicaltool.[156]Themythmadehimouttobeadogmaticideologueandardentnationalistwhen,infact,hewasideologicallyflexible.GerwartharguesthattheconstructedmemoryofBismarckplayedacentralroleasanantidemocraticmythinthehighlyideologicalbattleoverthepast,whichragedbetween1918and1933.ThismythprovedtobeaweaponagainsttheWeimarRepublicandexercisedadestructiveinfluenceonthepoliticalcultureofthefirstGermandemocracy.FrankelinBismarck'sShadow(2005)showstheBismarckcultfosteredandlegitimizedanewstyleofright-wingpolitics.Itmadepossiblethepost-Bismarckiancrisisofleadership,bothrealandperceived,thathadGermansseekingthestrongestpossibleleaderandasking,"WhatWouldBismarckDo?"Forexample,Hamburg'smemorial,unveiledin1906,isconsideredoneofthegreatestexpressionsofImperialGermany'sBismarckcultandanimportantdevelopmentinthehistoryofGermanmemorialart.ItwasaproductofthedesireofHamburg'spatricianclassestodefendtheirpoliticalprivilegesinthefaceofdramaticsocialchangeandattendantdemandsforpoliticalreform.Tothosewhopresidedoveritsconstruction,themonumentwasalsoameansofassertingHamburg'sculturalaspirationsandofshruggingoffareputationasacityhostiletothearts.ThememorialwasgreetedwithwidespreaddisapprovalamongtheworkingclassesanddidnotpreventtheirincreasingsupportfortheSocialDemocrats.[157] Placenames AnumberoflocalitiesaroundtheworldhavebeennamedinBismarck'shonour.Theyinclude: BismarckArchipelago,neartheformerGermancolonyofNewGuinea.[158] Bismarck,Illinois[159] Bismarck,NorthDakota,theonlyU.S.statecapitalnamedforaforeignstatesman.[160] Bismarck,Missouri,acityinMissouri.[161] BismarckSea[162] BismarckStrait,achannelinAntarctica.[163] CapeBismarck,NEGreenland.[164] Titles,styles,honoursandarms StylesofThePrinceofBismarckReferencestyleHisSereneHighnessSpokenstyleYourSereneHighness Titlesandstyles 1815–1865:JunkerOttovonBismarck 1865–1871:HisIllustriousHighnessTheCountofBismarck-Schönhausen 1871–1890:HisSereneHighnessThePrinceofBismarck,CountofBismarck-Schönhausen 1890–1898:HisSereneHighnessThePrinceofBismarck,CountofBismarck-Schönhausen,DukeofLauenburg BismarckwascreatedGrafvonBismarck-Schönhausen("CountofBismarck-Schönhausen")in1865;thiscomitaltitleisbornebyallhisdescendantsinthemaleline.In1871,hewasfurthercreatedFürstvonBismarck("PrinceofBismarck")andaccordedthestyleofDurchlaucht("SereneHighness");thisprincelytitledescendedonlytohiseldestmaleheirs. DukeofLauenburg ArmsofOtto,PrinceBismarck In1890,BismarckwasgrantedthetitleofHerzogvonLauenburg("DukeofLauenburg");theduchywasoneoftheterritoriesthatPrussiaseizedfromthekingofDenmarkin1864. ItwasBismarck'slifelongambitiontobeassimilatedintothemediatizedhousesofGermany.HeattemptedtopersuadeKaiserWilhelmIthatheshouldbeendowedwiththesovereignduchyofSaxe-Lauenburg,inrewardforhisservicestotheimperialfamilyandtheGermanempire.ThiswasontheunderstandingthatBismarckwouldimmediatelyrestoretheduchytoPrussia;allhewantedwasthestatusandprivilegesofamediatizedfamilyforhimselfandhisdescendants.Thisnovelideawasrejectedbytheconservativeemperor,whothoughtthathehadalreadygiventhechancellorenoughrewards.ThereisreasontobelievethatheinformedWilhelmIIofhiswishes;afterbeingforcedbythesovereigntoresign,hereceivedthepurelyhonorifictitleof"DukeofLauenburg",withouttheduchyitselfandthesovereigntythatwouldhavetransformedhisfamilyintoamediatizedhouse.Bismarckregardeditasamockeryofhisambition,andheconsiderednothingmorecruelthanthisactionoftheemperor.[165] UponBismarck'sdeathin1898hisdukedom,heldonlyforhisownlifetime,becameextinct. Honours Domesticordersanddecorations[166][167] Prussia: LifesavingMedal,13December1842[168] GrandCrossoftheRedEagle,withOakLeaves,17March1863;withCrown,ScepterandSwords,1878[169] KnightoftheBlackEagle,21November1864;withCollar,1865;inDiamonds,1873[169] Knight'sCrossoftheRoyalHouseOrderofHohenzollern,withSwords,1866;GrandCommander'sCrosswithStar,28July1866;inDiamonds,1873[169] CommanderofHonouroftheJohanniterOrder,1868[169] PourleMérite,withOakLeaves,1September1884(military)/20January1896(civil)[170] IronCross(1870),1stClasswith2ndClassonBlackBand;[171]withOakLeavesandJubileeClip,1895 KnightoftheWilhelm-Orden,withCollar,1896 LandwehrServiceMedal,1stClass Ascanianduchies:GrandCrossoftheOrderofAlberttheBear,20December1862[172]  Baden:KnightoftheHouseOrderofFidelity,1869;withGoldenCollarinDiamonds,1871[173]  Bavaria:KnightofSt.Hubert,withStarinDiamonds,1866[174]  Brunswick:GrandCrossoftheOrderofHenrytheLion,1867[175] Ernestineduchies:GrandCrossoftheSaxe-ErnestineHouseOrder,withCollar,September1866[176]  Hanover:GrandCrossoftheRoyalGuelphicOrder,1857[177] Hesse-Kassel:KnightoftheGoldenLion,1July1865[178] Hesse-Darmstadt:[179] GrandCrossoftheMeritOrderofPhiliptheMagnanimous,withSwords,7January1855 GrandCrossoftheLudwigOrder,9March1871 Mecklenburg:GrandCrossoftheWendishCrown,withGoldenCrown  Oldenburg:GrandCrossoftheOrderofDukePeterFriedrichLudwig,withGoldenCrown,24October1866;withSwords,31December1870[180]  Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach:GrandCrossoftheWhiteFalcon,3September1866;[181]inDiamonds,1885[182]  Saxony:KnightoftheRueCrown,1868;inDiamonds,1885[183]  Württemberg:GrandCrossoftheWürttembergCrown,inDiamonds,1871[184] Foreignordersanddecorations[167]  Austria:[185] KnightoftheIronCrown,1stClass,1853 GrandCrossoftheRoyalHungarianOrderofSt.Stephen,1864;inDiamonds,1872  Belgium:GrandCordonoftheOrderofLeopold(civil),25June1863[186]  Denmark:GrandCrossoftheDannebrog,11June1852[187]  Ethiopia:GrandCrossoftheStarofEthiopia France:GrandCrossoftheLegionofHonour,May1865[188] Greece:GrandCrossoftheRedeemer  Italy:KnightoftheAnnunciation,13January1867[189] HolySee:KnightoftheSupremeOrderofChrist,inDiamonds,31December1885[190]  Japan:GrandCordonoftheOrderoftheChrysanthemum,17June1882[191]  Netherlands:GrandCrossoftheNetherlandsLion  Luxembourg:GrandCrossoftheOakCrown  OttomanEmpire: OrderofDistinctioninDiamonds OrderofOsmanieh,1stClassinDiamonds Tunisia:HusainidFamilyOrder Persia: OrderoftheLionandtheSun,1stClass OrderoftheAugustPortrait,inDiamonds  Portugal:GrandCrossoftheTowerandSword  Romania:GrandCrossoftheStarofRomania Siam: GrandCrossoftheWhiteElephant GrandCrossoftheOrderofChulaChomKlao  SanMarino:GrandCrossoftheOrderofSanMarino  Serbia:GrandCrossoftheWhiteEagle  Spain:KnightoftheGoldenFleece,6March1875[192] Sweden-Norway:KnightoftheSeraphim,31May1875[193]  Zanzibar:KnightoftheBrilliantStarofZanzibar,1stClass(PrincelyClass)  Russia: KnightofSt.AlexanderNevsky,March1862 KnightofSt.Andrew,inDiamonds,5June1867[194] KnightofSt.Anna,1stClass KnightofSt.Stanislaus,1stClass KnightoftheWhiteEagle Militaryappointments Àlasuiteofthe7th(Magdeburg)Cuirassiers"vonSeydlitz",18October1868;Colonel-in-chief,26April1894[167] Inpopularculture Literature BismarckisoneoftheprincipalcharactersinRoyalFlash,thesecondnovelintheFlashmanserieswrittenbyGeorgeMacDonaldFraser.[195] Film Bismarck,portrayedbyCurdJürgens,appearsasamajorcharacterinthe1974BritishtelevisionseriesFallofEagles.[196] Inthe2014Danishseries1864,BismarckisportrayedbyRainerBock.[197] Games BismarckappearsastheleaderoftheGermancivilizationinthecomputerstrategygames,CivilizationIII,CivilizationIVandCivilizationV.[198] Seealso Germanyportal Politicsportal Conservatismportal ConservatisminGermany GersonvonBleichröder,Bismarck'sbankerandeconomicsadvisor HouseofBismarck LandtagofPrussia Bismarcktowers References ^EricHobsbawm,TheAgeofEmpire:1875–1914(1987),p.312. 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^Dobrin,SidneyI.(2009).Ecosee:Image,Rhetoric,Nature.SUNYPress.p. 272.ISBN 978-1-4384-2584-9.Archivedfromtheoriginalon17March2017.Retrieved16October2016. Furtherreading CaricaturebyOpper1895ofBismarck&Britain'sWilliamEwartGladstoneasperformersonthepoliticalstage Biographies Abrams,Lynn.BismarckandtheGermanEmpire,1871-1918(1995),75pages;online Crankshaw,Edward(1981).Bismarck.TheVikingPress.ISBN 978-0-670-16982-5.; Rich,Norman(1982)"SinkingtheBismarckLegend"(verynegativereview)Archived25December2020attheWaybackMachineTheWashingtonPost Darmstaedter,Friedrich(2008).BismarckandtheCreationoftheSecondReich.Russel&Russel.ISBN 978-0-8462-0624-8. Engelberg,Ernst(1986–90).Bismarck(inGerman).Vol. 1–2.Fayard.ISBN 978-3-8275-0024-3. Eyck,Erich(1964).BismarckandtheGermanEmpire.W.W.Norton&Company;1stedition.ISBN 978-0-393-00235-5.;online Feuchtwanger,Edgar(2002).Bismarck.HistoricalBiographies.Routledge.ISBN 978-0-415-21613-5. Gall,Lothar(1990).Bismarck:TheWhiteRevolutionary.Vol. 1.UnwinHyman.ISBN 978-0-04-445778-7. Gall,Lothar(1990).Bismarck:TheWhiteRevolutionary.Vol. 2.Trans.J.A.Underwood.UnwinHyman.ISBN 978-0-04-445779-4.;online Headlam,JamesWycliffe(1899).BismarckandtheFoundationoftheGermanEmpire.IndyPublish.ISBN 978-1-4142-3271-3. Heuston,KimberleyBurton(2010).OttovonBismarck:IronChancellorofGermany.AWickedHistory.FranklinWatts.ISBN 978-0-531-22824-1.formiddleschoolstudents Hollyday,F.B.M.(1970).Bismarck.GreatLivesObserved.Prentice-Hall.ISBN 978-0-13-077362-3. Kent,GeorgeO.(1978).BismarckandHisTimes.SouthernIllinoisUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-8093-0859-0. Lerman,KatharineAnne.(2004).Bismarck:ProfilesinPower.Longman.ISBN 978-0-582-03740-3. Ludwig,Emil(1927).WilhelmHohenzollern:ThelastoftheKaisers.Trans.EthelColburnMayne.NewYork:KessingerPublishing,LLC.ISBN 978-0-7661-4341-8. Ludwig,Emil(1927).Bismarck:TheStoryofaFighter.SkyhorsePublishing.ISBN 978-1-62087-176-8.;popularbiography Pflanze,Otto(1971).BismarckandtheDevelopmentofGermany:ThePeriodofUnification,1815–1871.Vol. 1.PrincetonUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-691-00765-6. Pflanze,Otto(1990)[1963].BismarckandtheDevelopmentofGermany:ThePeriodofConsolidation,1871–1880.Vol. 2.PrincetonUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-691-05588-6. Pflanze,Otto(April1955)."BismarckandGermanNationalism".AmericanHistoricalReview.60(3):548–66.doi:10.2307/1845577.JSTOR 1845577. Quinault,Roland."BismarckandGladstoneBeyondCaricature"HistoryToday(Nov2013)63#11pp21-28online;comparesthetwointermsofprivateandpubliclives Robertson,CharlesGrant(1919).Bismarck.London:ConstableandCompany.ISBN 978-1-357-14279-7.onlinereviewcallsitbeststudyinanylanguageArchived25December2020attheWaybackMachine Steinberg,Jonathan(2011).Bismarck:ALife.OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-19-997539-6. Kissinger,HenryA(31March2011)."OttovonBismarck,MasterStatesman".TheNewYorkTimes(bookreview).Archivedfromtheoriginalon8March2021.Retrieved11February2017. Stern,Fritz(1977).GoldandIron:Bismarck,BleichröderandtheBuildingoftheGermanEmpire.Vintage.ISBN 978-0-394-74034-8. Taylor,A.J.P.(1969)[1955].Bismarck:theManandtheStatesman.NewYork:AlfredAKnopf.ISBN 978-0-394-70387-9.online Surveys Berghahn,Volker(1994).ImperialGermany,1871–1914:Economy,Society,CultureandPolitics.BerghahnBooks.ISBN 978-1-84545-011-3. Blackbourn,David(1998).HistoryofGermany,1780–1918:TheLongNineteenthCentury(Revisedsecond ed.).Blackwell.ISBN 978-0-631-23196-7. Clark,Christopher(2009).IronKingdom:TheRiseandDownfallofPrussia,1600–1947.BelknapPress:AnImprintofHarvardUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-674-03196-8. Craig,GordonA.(1978).Germany,1866–1945.OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-19-502724-2. Holborn,Hajo(1982)."TheConstitutionalConflictinPrussiaandtheEarlyYearsoftheBismarckMinistry".TheHistoryofModernGermany1840–1945.Vol. 3.PrincetonUniversityPress.pp. 131–72.ISBN 978-0-691-00797-7. Holborn,Hajo(1982)."TheFoundingoftheNewGermanEmpire,1865–71".TheHistoryofModernGermany1840–1945.PrincetonUniversityPress.pp. 173–229.ISBN 978-0-691-00797-7. Holborn,Hajo(1969)."BismarckandtheConsolidationoftheGermanEmpire,1871–90".TheHistoryofModernGermany1840–1945.PrincetonUniversityPress.pp. 233–97.ISBN 978-0-691-00797-7. Langer,WilliamL.(1931).EuropeanAlliancesandAlignments,1871–1890.NewYork,Knopf. HighlydetaileddiplomatichistoryofallmajorEuropeanpowers. Retallack,JamesN.(2008).ImperialGermany,1871–1918.OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-19-920487-8. Robinson,Janet;Robinson,Joe(2009).HandbookofImperialGermany.AuthorHouse.ISBN 978-1-4490-2113-9. Sheehan,JamesJ.(1989).GermanHistory,1770–1866(Reprint ed.).ClarendonPress.ISBN 978-0-19-820432-9. Sheehan,JamesJ.(1978).Germanliberalisminthenineturycentury.UniversityofChicagoPress;ACLS.hdl:2027/heb.01317.0001.001.ISBN 9780226752082. Specializedstudies Beck,Hermann(1995).OriginsoftheAuthoritarianWelfareStateinPrussia,1815–1870.TheUniversityofMichiganPress.ISBN 978-0-472-08428-9. Brandenburg,Erich(1933).FromBismarcktotheWorldWar:AHistoryofGermanForeignPolicy1870–1914(Reprint ed.).HowardFertigPublisher.ISBN 978-0-86527-422-8.Archivedfromtheoriginalon15March2017. Carroll,E.Malcolm(1975).Germanyandthegreatpowers,1866–1914:AStudyinPublicOpinionandForeignPolicy.OctagonBooks.ISBN 978-0-374-91299-4.Archivedfromtheoriginalon20September2018.Retrieved31May2017. Clark,ChesterWells(1934).FranzJosephandBismarck:TheDiplomacyofAustriabeforetheWarof1866.Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress.ASIN B0006BUIOG. Field,W.G.(October1898)."Bismarck'sFirstSchool".TheJournalofEducation.20:603–04.Archivedfromtheoriginalon9September2020.Retrieved3October2020. 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Kissinger,HenryA."Thewhiterevolutionary:ReflectionsonBismarck."Daedalus(1968):888-924onlineArchived24June2021attheWaybackMachine Lord,RobertH.(1923)."BismarckandRussiain1863".AmericanHistoricalReview.29(1):2–48.doi:10.2307/1839273.JSTOR 1839273. Medlicott,W.N.(1945)."BismarckandtheThreeEmperors'Alliance,1881-87".TransactionsoftheRoyalHistoricalSociety.27:61–83.doi:10.2307/3678575.JSTOR 3678575. Mork,GordonR.(1971)."Bismarckandthe'Capitulation'ofGermanLiberalism".JournalofModernHistory.43(1):59–75.doi:10.1086/240588.JSTOR 1877926.S2CID 144213711. Paur,Philip(1981)."TheCorporatistCharacterofBismarck'sSocialPolicy".EuropeanHistoryQuarterly.11(4):427–60.doi:10.1177/026569148101100401.S2CID 144764469. 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Thomson,Henry."LandholdingInequality,PoliticalStrategy,andAuthoritarianRepression:StructureandAgencyinBismarck’s'SecondFounding'oftheGermanEmpire."StudiesinComparativeInternationalDevelopment50.1(2015):73-97.cites Vagts,Alfred."LandandSeaPowerintheSecondGermanReich."JournalofMilitaryHistory3.4(1939):210+onlineArchived16July2020attheWaybackMachine Waller,Bruce(1974).BismarckattheCrossroads.TheReorientationofGermanForeignPolicyaftertheCongressofBerlin1878–1880.TheAthlonePress.ISBN 978-0-485-13135-2. Wawro,Geoffrey(2005).TheFranco-PrussianWar:TheGermanConquestofFrancein1870–1871.CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-521-61743-7. Wawro,Geoffrey(2012)."TheWarScareof1875:BismarckandEuropeintheMid-1870s".GermanHistory.30(1):140–41.doi:10.1093/gerhis/ghr079. Wehler,Hans-Ulrich(1970)."Bismarck'sImperialism1862–1890".PastandPresent.48(48):119–55.doi:10.1093/past/48.1.119.JSTOR 650484. Wetzel,David(2012).ADuelofNations:Germany,France,andtheDiplomacyoftheWarof1870–1871.UniversityofWisconsinPress.ISBN 978-0-299-29134-1. Wetzel,David(2001).ADuelofGiants:Bismarck,NapoleonIII,andtheOriginsoftheFranco-PrussianWar.UniversityofWisconsinPress.ISBN 978-0-299-17490-3. Historiographyandmemory Andrews,HerbertD."Bismarck'sForeignPolicyandGermanHistoriography,1919-1945"JournalofModernHistory(1965)37#3pp. 345–356online Barkin,Kenneth."BismarckinaPostmodernWorld."GermanStudiesReview18.2(1995):241-251.online Cowen,Ron(30January2012)."RestoredEdisonRecordsReviveGiantsof19th-CenturyGermany".TheNewYorkTimes.Archivedfromtheoriginalon12June2018.Retrieved31January2012. Frankel,RichardE.(2003)."FromtheBeerHallstotheHallsofPower:TheCultofBismarckandtheLegitimizationofaNewGermanRight,1898–1945".GermanStudiesReview.26(3):543–60.doi:10.2307/1432746.JSTOR 1432746. Frankel,RichardE(2005).Bismarck'sShadow.TheCultofLeadershipandtheTransformationoftheGermanRight,1898–1945.BergPublishers.ISBN 978-1-84520-033-6. Gerwarth,Robert,andLucyRiall."Fathersofthenation?Bismarck,GaribaldiandthecultofmemoryinGermanyandItaly."EuropeanHistoryQuarterly39.3(2009):388-413. Gerwarth,Robert(2007)."InventingtheIronChancellor".HistoryToday.57(6):43–49.,popularhistory Gerwarth,Robert(2005).TheBismarckMyth:WeimarGermanyandtheLegacyoftheIronChancellor.ClarendonPress.ISBN 978-0-19-923689-3. Geyer,Michael,andKonradH.Jarausch."GreatMenandPostmodernRuptures:Overcomingthe"Belatedness"ofGermanHistoriography."GermanStudiesReview18.2(1995):253-273.online Hamerow,TheodoreS.(1993).OttovonBismarckandImperialGermany:AHistoricalAssessment(2nd ed.).DCHeath&Co.ISBN 978-0-669-29444-6. Müller,FrankLorenz(2008)."Man,MythandMonuments:TheLegacyofOttovonBismarck(1866–1998)".EuropeanHistoryQuarterly.38(4):626–36.doi:10.1177/0265691408094517. Pearce,Robert(2010)."TheAustro-PrussianWar".HistoryReview(66). Russell,MarkA.(2000)."TheBuildingofHamburg'sBismarckMemorial,1898–1906".HistoricalJournal.43(1):133–56.doi:10.1017/S0018246X99008961.JSTOR 3021016.S2CID 154544615. Spencer,Frank."BismarckAndTheFranco-PrussianWar"History40#140(1955),pp. 319–25onlineArchived25December2020attheWaybackMachinehistoriography Steefel,LawrenceD.(1930)."Bismarck".JournalofModernHistory.2(1):74–95.doi:10.1086/235557.JSTOR 1871140.S2CID 222424868. Stürmer,Michael(1971)."BismarckinPerspective".CentralEuropeanHistory.4(4):291–331.doi:10.1017/S0008938900015399.JSTOR 4545614. Urbach,Karina(1998)."BetweenSaviourandVillain:100YearsofBismarckBiographies".HistoricalJournal.41(4):1141–60.doi:10.1017/s0018246x98008206.JSTOR 3020865. Primarysources Bismarck,Ottovon(1899).Bismarck,theMan&theStatesman:BeingtheReflectionsandReminiscencesofOtto,PrincevonBismarck.Vol. 1.Trans.A.J.Butler.NewYorkandLondon:Harper&Brothers. Bismarck,Ottovon(1898).Memoirs.Vol. II.NewYorkHarper. Hohenzollern,WilliamI;Bismarck,Ottovon(1903).ThecorrespondenceofWilliamI.andBismarck:withotherlettersfromandtoPrinceBismarck.TranslatedbyFord,J.A.NewYork :Stokes. Coveney,DorothyKathleen;Medlicott,WilliamNorton(1971).BismarckandEurope.HodderArnold.ISBN 978-0-312-08225-3. Externallinks OttovonBismarckatWikipedia'ssisterprojectsMediafromCommonsQuotationsfromWikiquoteTextsfromWikisourceDatafromWikidata OttovonBismarckatCurlie "Bismarck",BBCRadio4discussionwithRichardJ.Evans,ChristopherClarkandKatharineLerman,InOurTime,22March2007 NewspaperclippingsaboutOttovonBismarckinthe20thCenturyPressArchivesoftheZBW Politicaloffices Preceded byAdolfzuHohenlohe-Ingelfingen MinisterPresidentofPrussia1862–73 Succeeded byAlbrechtvonRoon Confederationestablished ChancelloroftheNorthGermanConfederation1867–71 ConfederationabolishedGermanEmpireproclaimed Preceded byAlbrechtvonBernstorff ForeignMinisterofPrussia1862–90 Succeeded byLeovonCaprivi Newtitle ChancellorofGermany1871–90 Preceded byAlbrechtvonRoon MinisterPresidentofPrussia1873–90 Germannobility Newtitle PrinceofBismarck1871–98 Succeeded byHerbertvonBismarck vteChancellorsofGermanyNorthGermanConfederationBundeskanzler(1867–1871) OttovonBismarck GermanEmpireReichskanzler(1871–1918) OttovonBismarck LeovonCaprivi 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KlemensWenzel,PrincevonMetternich LudwigIIofBavaria NapoleonIIIofFrance OttovonBismarck RobertBlum WilhelmvonHumboldt WilhelmI,GermanEmperor Related Alsace-Lorraine Burschenschaft DasLiedderDeutschen DieWachtamRhein FlagofGermany(LützowFreeCorps) Pan-Germanism Germanquestion FrankfurtParliament Germanreunification Schleswig-HolsteinQuestion Sonderweg Germanyportal AuthoritycontrolGeneral IntegratedAuthorityFile(Germany) ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat Nationallibraries Norway Spain France(data) Catalonia UnitedStates Latvia Japan CzechRepublic Australia Greece Israel Korea Romania Croatia Netherlands Poland Sweden Vatican Scientificdatabases CiNii(Japan) Other FacetedApplicationofSubjectTerminology RISM(France) 1 RERO(Switzerland) 1 SocialNetworksandArchivalContext SUDOC(France) 1 Trove(Australia) 1 Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Otto_von_Bismarck&oldid=1068332760" 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