Social Comparison - Noba Project

In 1954, psychologist Leon Festinger hypothesized that people compare themselves to others in order to fulfill a basic human desire: the need for self- ... SkiptomaincontentBrowseContentSocialComparisonWhenathletes competeinarace,theyareabletoobserveandcomparetheirperformance againstthoseoftheircompetitors.Inthesameway,allpeoplenaturally engageinmentalcomparisonswiththepeoplearoundthemduringthecourseof dailylife.Theseevaluationscanimpactourmotivationandfeelings.Inthis module,youwilllearnabouttheprocessofsocialcomparison:itsdefinition, consequences,andthefactorsthataffectit.Share×CloseDialogSocialComparisonSharethismoduleto:SharethisURLdownwardcomparisonDunning-KrugerEffectFrogPondEffectN-EffectSelf-esteemSelf-evaluationupwardcomparisonLearningObjectivesUnderstandthereasonspeoplemakesocialcomparisons.Identifyconsequencesofsocialcomparison.UnderstandtheSelf-EvaluationMaintenanceModel.Explainsituationalfactorsthatcanaffectsocialcomparison.Introduction:SocialComparisonOnepleasantSaturdayafternoon,Mr.Jonesarriveshomefromthecardealershipinabrand-newMercedes-BenzC-Class,theentry-levelsedanintheMercedesfamilyofcars.AlthoughMercedes-BenzesarecommoninEurope,theyareoftenviewedasstatussymbolsinMr.Jones’neighborhoodinNorthAmerica.Thisnewcarisahugeupgradefromhispreviouscar.Excited,Mr.Jonesimmediatelydrivesaroundtheblockandintotowntoshowitoff.Heisthrilledwithhispurchaseforafullweek—thatis,untilheseeshisneighboracrossthestreet,Mr.Smith,drivingabrand-newMercedesS-Class,thehighesttierofMercedessedans.Mr.SmithnoticesMr.Jonesfromadistanceandwavestohimwithabigsmile.ClimbingintohisC-Class,Mr.JonessuddenlyfeelsdisappointedwithhispurchaseandevenfeelsenviousofMr.Smith.NowhisC-Classfeelsjustasuncooashisoldcar.Mr.Smithisexperiencingtheeffectsofsocialcomparison.Occurringfrequentlyinourlives,socialcomparisonshapesourperceptions,memory,andbehavior—evenregardingthemosttrivialofissues.Inthismodule,wewilltakeacloserlookatthereasonswemakesocialcomparisonsandtheconsequencesofthesocialcomparisonprocess.Socialcomparisonisawell-knownconcepttoadvertisers.Theycreateidealizedimagesthatinfluenceconsumers’self-perceptionsaswellasthethingstheyfeeltheymustbuyinordertobesatisfied.[Image:SenseiAlan,http://goo.gl/XOwjq5,CCBY2.0,http://goo.gl/T4qgSp]SocialComparison:BasicsIn1954,psychologistLeonFestingerhypothesizedthatpeoplecomparethemselvestoothersinordertofulfillabasichumandesire:theneedforself-evaluation.Hecalledthisprocesssocialcomparisontheory.Atthecoreofhistheoryistheideathatpeoplecometoknowaboutthemselves—theirownabilities,successes,andpersonality—bycomparingthemselveswithothers.Thesecomparisonscanbedividedintotwobasiccategories.Inonecategory,weconsidersocialnormsandtheopinionsofothers.Specifically,wecompareourownopinionsandvaluestothoseofotherswhenourownself-evaluationisunclear.Forexample,youmightnotbecertainaboutyourpositiononahotlycontestedissue,suchasthelegalityofabortion.Or,youmightnotbecertainaboutwhichforktousefirstinamulti-courseplacesetting.Inthesetypesofinstancespeoplearepronetolooktowardothers—tomakesocialcomparisons—tohelpfillinthegaps.ImagineanAmericanexchangestudentarrivinginIndiaforthefirsttime,acountrywherethecultureisdrasticallydifferentfromhisown.Henoticesquicklythroughobservingothers—i.e.,socialcomparison—thatwhengreetingaperson,itisnormaltoplacehisownpalmstogetherratherthanshakingtheotherperson’shand.Thiscomparisoninformshimofhowheshouldbehaveinthesurroundingsocialcontext. Whencomparing,similarityisimportant.Aprofessionalathleteisfarmorelikelytocomparehisorherownperformanceagainstthatofotherprofessionalathletesthanthatofanamateur.[Image:Doma-w,https://goo.gl/2NM9Ii,CCBY3.0,https://goo.gl/b58TcB]Thesecondcategoryofsocialcomparisonpertainstoourabilitiesandperformance.Inthesecases,theneedforself-evaluationisdrivenbyanotherfundamentaldesire:toperformbetterandbetter—asFestinger(1954)putit,“aunidirectionaldriveupward.”Inessence,wecompareourperformancenotonlytoevaluateourselvesbutalsotobenchmarkourperformancerelatedtoanotherperson.Ifweobserveorevenanticipatethataspecificpersonisdoingbetterthanusatsomeabilitythenwemaybemotivatedtoboostourperformancelevel.Take,forexample,arealisticscenariowhereOliviausessocialcomparisontogaugeherabilities:Oliviaisahighschoolstudentwhooftenspendsafewhoursinherbackyardshootingasoccerballatherhomemadegoal.Afriendofherssuggestsshetryoutfortheschool’ssoccerteam.Oliviaacceptsherfriend’ssuggestion,althoughnervously,doubtingshe’sgoodenoughtomaketheteam.Onthedayoftryouts,Oliviagetshergearreadyandstartswalkingtowardsthesoccerfield.Assheapproaches,shefeelsbutterfliesinherstomachandherlegsgetwobbly.But,glancingtowardstheothercandidateswhohavearrivedearlytotakeafewpracticeshotsatthegoal,shenoticesthattheiraimisinconsistentandtheyfrequentlymissthegoal.Seeingthis,Oliviafeelsmorerelaxed,andsheconfidentlymarchesontothefield,readytoshoweveryoneherskills.RelevanceandSimilarityThereareimportantfactors,however,thatdeterminewhetherpeoplewillengageinsocialcomparison.First,theperformancedimensionhastoberelevanttotheself(Festinger,1954).Forexample,ifexcellinginacademicsismoreimportanttoyouthanexcellinginsports,youaremorelikelytocompareyourselfwithothersintermsofacademicratherthanathleticperformance.Relevanceisalsoimportantwhenassessingopinions.Iftheissueathandisrelevanttoyou,youwillcompareyouropiniontoothers;ifnot,youmostlikelywon’tevenbother.Relevanceisthusanecessarypreconditionforsocialcomparison.Asecondaryquestionis,"to whomdopeoplecomparethemselves?"Generallyspeaking,peoplecomparethemselvestothosewhoaresimilar(Festinger,1954;Goethals&Darley,1977),whethersimilarinpersonalcharacteristics(e.g.,gender,ethnicbackground,haircolor,etc.)orintermsofperformance(e.g.,bothbeingofcomparableabilityorbothbeingneck-and-neckinarace).Forexample,acasualtennisplayerwillnotcompareherperformancetothatofaprofessional,butrathertothatofanothercasualtennisplayer.Thesameistrueofopinions.Peoplewillcross-referencetheirownopinionsonanissuewithotherswhoaresimilartothemratherthandissimilar(e.g.,ethnicbackgroundoreconomicstatus). DirectionofComparisonSocialcomparisonisabi-directionalphenomenonwherewecancompareourselvestopeoplewhoarebetterthanus—“upwardcomparisons”—orworsethanus—“downwardcomparisons.”Engagingineitherofthesetwocomparisonsonaperformancedimensioncanaffectourself-evaluation.Ononehand,upwardcomparisonsonrelevantdimensionscanthreatenourself-evaluationandjeopardizeself-esteem(Tesser,1988).Ontheotherhand,theycanalsoleadtojoyandadmirationforothers’accomplishmentsondimensionsthatarenotrelevanttotheself,whereone’sself-evaluationisnotunderthreat.Forexample,anacademicoverachieverwhodistinguisheshimselfbyhavingtwoadvanceddegrees,bothaPhDandalawdegree,maynotenjoymeetinganotherindividualwithaPhD,alawdegree,andan MBA,butmaywellenjoymeetingafellowoverachieverinadomainthatisnotself-relevant,suchasafamousNASCARracerorprofessionalhockeyplayer.Downwardcomparisonsmayboostourself-evaluationonrelevantdimensions,leadingtoaself-enhancementeffect(Wills,1981),suchaswhenanindividualsufferingfromanillnessmakesdownwardcomparisonswiththosesufferingevenmore.Apersonenduringtreatmentforcancer,forinstance,mightfeelbetterabouthisownsideeffectsifhelearnsthatanacquaintancesufferedworsesideeffectsfromthesametreatment.Morerecentfindingshavealsoshownthatdownwardcomparisonscanalsoleadtofeelingsofscorn(Fiske,2011),suchaswhenthoseofayoungergenerationlookdownupontheelderly.Inthesecases,theboosttoself-evaluationissostrongthatitleadstoanexaggeratedsenseofpride.Interestingly,thedirectionofcomparisonandaperson’semotionalresponsecanalsodependonthecounterfactual—“whatmighthavebeen”—thatcomesmosteasilytomind.Forexample,onemightthinkthatanOlympicsilvermedalistwouldfeelhappierthanabronzemedalist.Afterall,placingsecondismoreprestigiousthanplacingthird.However,aclassicstudybyVictoriaMedvec,ScottMadey,andThomasGilovich(1995)foundtheoppositeeffect:bronzemedalistswereactuallyhappierthansilvermedalists.Thereasonforthiseffectisthatsilvermedalist'sfocusonhavingfallenshortofachievingthegold(soclose!),essentiallyturningapossibledownwardcomparisonintoanupwardcomparison;whereasthebronzemedalistsrecognizetheycameclosetonotwinninganymedal,essentiallyturningapossibleupwardcomparison(toanothermedalist)intoadownwardcomparisontothosewhodidnotevenreceiveamedal. Table1:Theeffectsofsocialcomparison.ConsequencesofSocialComparisonThesocialcomparisonprocesshasbeenassociatedwithnumerousconsequences.Forone,socialcomparisoncanimpactself-esteem(Tesser,1988),especiallywhendoingwellrelativetoothers.Forexample,havingthebestfinalscoreinaclasscanincreaseyourself-esteemquiteabit.Socialcomparisoncanalsoleadtofeelingsofregret(White,Langer,Yariv,&Welch,2006),aswhencomparingthenegativeoutcomeofone’sinvestmentstrategytothepositiveoutcomeofadifferentstrategytakenbyaneighbor.Socialcomparisoncanalsoleadtofeelingsofenvy(Fiske,2011;Salovey&Rodin,1984),aswhensomeonewiththinninghairenviesthethickhairofacolleague. Comparingyourbehaviortothatofotherpeoplemightmakeyoujealous,regretfulormoremotivated.Lapelstickersandonlinebadgesthatproclaim“Ivoted”or“Igaveblood”arecommonexamplesofleveragingsocialcomparisontoachievepositivesocialoutcomes.[Image:CAVECANEM,http://goo.gl/ifKSiE,CCBY2.0,http://goo.gl/v4Y0Zv]Socialcomparisoncanalsohaveinterestingbehavioralconsequences.Ifyouweretoobserveadiscrepancyinperformancebetweenyourselfandanotherperson,thenyoumightbehavemorecompetitively(Garcia,Tor,&Schiff,2013),asyouattempttominimizethediscrepancy.If,forexample,youareamongthetop10%onyourclassmid-termyoumightfeelcompetitivewiththeothertopstudents.Althoughcompetitioncanraiseperformanceitcanalsotakemoreproblematicforms,frominflictingactualharmtomakinga commenttoanotherperson.Thesekindsofbehaviorsarelikelytoarisewhenthesituationfollowingthesocialcomparisondoesnotprovidetheopportunitytoself-repair,suchasanotherchancetocompeteinaraceorretakeatest(Johnson,2012).However,whenlateropportunitiestoself-repairdoexist,amorepositiveformofcompetitivemotivationarises,whetherthatmeansrunningharderinaraceorstrivingtoearnahighertestscore.Self-EvaluationMaintenanceModelTheself-evaluationmaintenance(SEM;Tesser,1988)modelbuildsonsocialcomparisontheory.SEMpointstoarangeofpsychologicalforcesthathelpandmaintainourself-evaluationandself-esteem.Inadditiontorelevanceandsimilarity,SEMrevealstheimportanceofrelationshipcloseness.Itturnsoutthatrelationshipcloseness—wheretwopeoplestandonthecontinuumfrombeingcompletestrangerstobeingintimatefriends—affectsself-evaluations.Forexample,inonestudy,TesserandSmith (1980)askedpeopletoplayaverbalgameinwhichtheyweregiventheopportunitytoreceivecluesfromapartner.Thesecluescouldbeusedtohelpthemguessthecorrectwordinawordgame.Halftheparticipantsweretoldthegamewasrelatedtointelligencewhereastheotherhalfwerenot.Additionally,halftheparticipantswerepairedwithaclosefriendbuttheotherhalfplayedwithastranger.Resultsshowthatparticipantswhowereledtobelievethetaskwasself-relevantorhavingtodowithintelligenceprovidedmoredifficultclueswhentheirpartnerwasafriendversusastranger—suggestingacompetitiveuptickassociatedwithrelationshipcloseness.However,whenperformancewasimpliedtobeirrelevanttotheself,partnersgaveeasiercluestofriendsthanstrangers.SEMcanpredictwhichofourfriendsandwhichofourcomparisondimensionsareself-relevant(Tesser&Campbell,2006;Zuckerman&Jost,2001).Forexample,supposeplayingchessishighlyself-relevantforyou.Inthiscaseyouwillnaturallycompareyourselvestootherchessplayers.Now,supposethatyourchess-playingfriendconsistentlybeatsyou.Infact,eachtimeyouplayshebeatsyoubyawiderandwidermargin.SEMwouldpredictthatoneoftwothingswilllikelyhappen:(1)winningatchesswillnolongerbeself-relevanttoyou,or(2)youwillnolongerbefriendswiththisindividual.Infact,ifthefirstoptionoccurs—youloseinterestincompeting—youwillbegintobaskinthegloryofyourchessplayingfriendashisorherperformanceapproachesperfection.Thesepsychologicalprocesseshaverealworldimplications!Theymaydeterminewhoishiredinanorganizationorwhoispromotedatwork.Forexample,supposeyouareafacultymemberofauniversitylawschool.Yourworkperformanceisappraisedbasedonyourteachingandonyouracademicpublications.Althoughyoudonothavethemostpublicationsinyourlawschool,youdohavethemostpublicationsinprestigiousjournals. Itiscommonadviceinthebusinessworldformanagersto“hireyourreplacement.”Inotherwords,tohirepeoplewithasmuchtalentaspossible,eventhosewhocoulddothejobbetterthanthemanager.TheSEMmodelsuggeststhatmanagersmayprefersub-optimalcandidateswhoaren’tlikelytochallengetheirstandingintheorganization.[Image:Ethan,http://goo.gl/Inqxas,CCBY2.0,http://goo.gl/v4Y0Zv]Now,supposethatyouarechairingacommitteetohireanewfacultymember.Onecandidatehasevenmoretoptierpublicationsthanyou,whileanothercandidatehasthemostpublicationsingeneralofallthefacultymembers.Howdoyouthinksocialcomparisonmightinfluenceyourchoiceofapplicants?Researchsuggests thatsomeoneinyourhypotheticalshoeswouldlikelyfavorthesecondcandidateoverthefirstcandidate:peoplewillactivelychampionthecandidatewhodoesnotthreatentheirstandingonarelevantdimensioninanorganization(Garcia,Song,&Tesser,2010).Inotherwords,theSEMforcesaresopowerfulthatpeoplewillessentiallyadvocateforacandidatewhomtheyfeelisinferior! IndividualDifferencesItisalsoworthmentioningthatsocialcomparisonanditseffectsonself-evaluationwilloftendependonpersonalityandindividualdifferences.Forexample,peoplewithmasterygoals(Poortvliet,Janssen,VanYperen,&VandeVliert,2007)maynotinterpretanupwardcomparisonasathreattotheselfbutmoreaschallenge,andahopefulsignthatonecanachieveacertainlevelofperformance.Anotherindividualdifferenceiswhetheronehasa“fixedmindset”or“growthmindset”(Dweck,2007).Peoplewithfixedmindsetsthinkthattheirabilitiesandtalentscannotchange;thus,anupwardcomparisonwilllikelythreatentheirself-evaluationandpromptthemtoexperiencenegativeconsequencesofsocialcomparison,suchascompetitivebehavior,envy,orunhappiness.Peoplewithgrowthmindsets,however,arelikelytointerpretanupwardcomparisonasachallenge,andanopportunitytoimprovethemselves. SituationalfactorsSocialcomparisonresearchersareactivelyexploringsituationalfactorsthatcanlikewiseinfluencedegreesofsocialcomparison:NumberAsthenumberofcomparisontargets(i.e.,thenumberofpeoplewithwhomyoucancompare)increases,socialcomparisontendstodecrease.Forexample,imagineyouarerunningaracewithcompetitorsofsimilarabilityasyourown,andthetop20%willreceiveaprize.Doyouthinkyouwouldtryharderiftherewereonly10peopleintherace,oriftherewere100?Thefindingson N-Effect(Garcia&Tor,2009;Tor&Garcia,2010)suggesttheansweris10.Eventhoughtheexpectedvalueofwinningisthesameinbothcases,peoplewilltryharderwhentherearefewerpeople.Infact,findingssuggestthatasthenumberofSATtest-takersataparticularvenueincreases,thelowertheaverageSATscoreforthatvenuewillbe(Garcia&Tor,2009).OneofthemechanismsbehindtheN-Effectissocialcomparison.Asthenumberofcompetitorsincreases,socialcomparison—oneoftheenginesbehindcompetitivemotivation—becomeslessimportant.Perhapsyouhaveexperiencedthisifyouhavehadtogiveclasspresentations.Asthenumberofpresentersincreases,youfeeladecreasingamountofcomparisonpressure.LocalItisnaturaltomakecomparisonsbetweenoneselfandothers onavarietyofdifferentstandardsandtocompareoneselfwithavarietyofdifferentpeople.Comparisonstofriendsareamongthemostinfluentialofall.[Image:CorrieM,http://goo.gl/FRbOfQ,CCBY-ND2.0,http://goo.gl/FuDJ6c]Researchonthelocaldominanceeffect (Zell&Alicke,2010)alsoprovidesinsightsaboutsocialcomparison.Peoplearemoreinfluencedbysocialcomparisonwhenthecomparisonismorelocalizedratherthanbeingbroadandgeneral.Forexample,ifyouwantedtoevaluateyourheightbyusingsocialcomparison,youcouldcompareyourheighttoagoodfriend,agroupoffriends,peopleinyourworkplace,oreventheaverageheightofpeoplelivinginyourcity.Althoughanyofthesecomparisonsishypotheticallypossiblepeoplegenerallyrelyonmorelocalcomparisons.Theyaremorelikelytocomparewithfriendsorco-workersthantheyaretoindustryornationalaverages.So,ifyouareamongthetallestinyourgroupoffriends,itmayverywellgiveyouabiggerboosttoyourself-esteem,evenifyou’restillamongtheshortestindividuals atthenationallevel.ProximitytoaStandardResearchsuggeststhatsocialcomparisoninvolvestheproximityofastandard—suchasthe#1rankingorotherqualitativethreshold.Oneconsequenceofthisisanincreaseincompetitivebehavior.Forexample,inchildhoodgames,ifsomeoneshouts,“Firstonetothetreeisthecoolest-person-inthe-world!”thenthechildrenwhoarenearestthetreewilltugandpullateachotherforthelead.However,ifsomeoneshouts,“Lastonethereisarotten-egg!”thenthechildrenwhoareinlastplacewillbetheonestuggingandpullingeachothertogetahead.Intheproximityofastandard,socialcomparisonconcernsincrease.Wealsoseethisinrankings.Rivalsranked#2and#3,forinstance,arelesswillingtomaximizejointgains(inwhichtheybothbenefit)ifitmeanstheiropponentwillbenefitmore,comparedtorivalsranked#202and#203(Garcia,Tor,&Gonzalez,2006;Garcia&Tor,2007).Theselatterrivalsaresofarfromthe#1rank(i.e.,thestandard)thatitdoesnotbotherthemiftheiropponentbenefitsmorethanthem.Thus,socialcomparisonconcernsareonlyimportantintheproximityofastandard.SocialCategoryLinesSocialcomparisoncanalsohappenbetweengroups.Thisisespeciallythecasewhengroupscomefromdifferentsocialcategoriesversusthesamesocialcategory.Forexample,ifstudentsweredecidingwhatkindofmusictoplayatthehighschoolprom,oneoptionwouldbetosimplyflipacoin—say,headsforhip-hop,tailsforpop.Inthiscase,everyonerepresentsthesamesocialcategory—highschoolseniors—andsocialcomparisonisn’tanissue.However,ifalltheboyswantedhip-hopandallthegirlswantedpopflippingacoinisnotsuchaneasysolutionasitprivilegesonesocialcategoryoveranother(Garcia&Miller,2007).Formoreonthis,considerlookingintotheresearchliteratureaboutthedifficultiesofwin-winscenariosbetweendifferentsocialcategories(Tajfel,Billig,Bundy,&Flament,1971;Turner,Brown,&Tajfel,1979).RelatedPhenomenaFrogPondEffectOneinterestingphenomenonofsocialcomparisonistheFrogPondEffect. Asthenamesuggests,itspremisecanbeillustratedusingthesimpleanalogyofafroginapond:asafrog,wouldyouratherbeinasmallpondwhereyou’reabigfrog,oralargepondwhereyou’reasmallfrog? AccordingtoMarsh,Trautwein,LudtkeandKoller(2008),peopleingeneralhadabetteracademicself-conceptiftheywereabigfroginasmallpond(e.g.,thetopstudentintheirlocalhighschool)ratherthanasmallfroginalargeone(e.g.,oneofmanygoodstudentsatanIvyLeagueuniversity).Inalargestudyofstudents,theyfoundthatschool-averageabilitycanhaveanegativeimpactontheacademicself-esteemofastudentwhentheaverageabilityis1standarddeviationhigherthannormal(i.e.,abigpond).Inotherwords,averagestudentshaveahigheracademicself-conceptwhenattendingabelow-averageschool(bigfishinasmallpond),andtheyhavealoweracademicself-conceptwhenattendinganabove-averageschool(smallfishinabigpond)(Marsh,1987;Marsh&Parker,1984).TheDunning-KrugerEffectAnotherrelatedtopictosocialcomparisonistheDunning-KrugerEffect.TheDunning-Krugereffect,asexplainedbyDunning,Johnson,EhrlingerandKruger(2003),addressesthefactthatunskilledpeopleoftenthinktheyareonparorsuperiortotheirpeersintaskssuchastest-takingabilities.Thatis,theyareoverconfident.Basically,theyfailtoaccuratelycomparethemselvesortheirskillswithintheirsurroundings.Forexample,Dunningetal.(2003)askedstudentstodisclosehowwelltheythoughttheyhaddoneonanexamthey’djusttaken.Thebottom25%ofstudentswiththelowesttestscoresoverestimatedtheirperformancebyapproximately30%,thinkingtheirperformancewasabovethe50thpercentile.Thisestimationproblemdoesn’tonlyapplytopoorperformers,however.AccordingtoDunningetal.(2003),topperformerstendtounderestimatetheirskillsorpercentilerankingintheirsurroundingcontext.SomeexplanationsareprovidedbyDunningetal.(2003)forthiseffectonboththegoodandpoorperformers:Thepoorperformers,comparedtotheirmorecapablepeers,lackspecificlogicalabilitiessimilartothelogicnecessarytodosomeofthetasks/testsinthesestudiesand,assuch,cannotreallydistinguishwhichquestionstheyaregettingrightorwrong.Thisisknownasthedouble-curseexplanation.However,thegoodperformersdonothavethisparticularlogicproblemandareactuallyquitegoodatestimatingtheirrawscores.Ironically,thegoodperformersusuallyoverestimatehowwellthepeoplearoundthemaredoingandthereforedevaluatetheirownperformance.Asaresult,mostpeopletendtothinktheyareaboveaverageinwhattheydo,wheninactualitynoteveryonecanbeaboveaverage.TheDunning-KrugerEffectshowsthattheleastexperiencedandleast knowledgeablepeopleareover-confident.Thesepeopledon’tknowwhattheydon’tknowandaremorelikelytooverestimatetheirownabilities.ConclusionSocialcomparisonisanaturalpsychologicaltendencyandonethatcanexertapowerfulinfluenceonthewaywefeelandbehave.Manypeopleactasifsocialcomparisonisanuglyphenomenonandonetobeavoided.Thissentimentisattheheartofphraseslike“keepingupwiththeJoneses”and“theratrace,”inwhichitisassumedthatpeopleareprimarilymotivatedbyadesiretobeatothers.Intruth,socialcomparisonhasmanypositiveaspects.Justthinkaboutit:howcouldyouevergaugeyourskillsinchesswithouthavinganyonetocompareyourselfto?Itwouldbenearlyimpossibletoeverknowjusthowgoodyourchessskillsare,orevenwhatcriteriadetermine“good”vs.“bad”chessskills.Inaddition,theengineofsocialcomparisoncanalsoprovidethepushyouneedtorisetotheoccasionandincreaseyourmotivation,andthereforemakeprogresstowardyourgoals. OutsideResourcesVideo:DownwardComparisonVideo:Dunning-KrugerEffectVideo:SocialComparisonoverviewVideo:SocialMediaandComparisonVideo:UpwardComparisonWeb:Self-Compassiontocounterthenegativeeffectsofsocialcomparisonhttp://self-compassion.org/the-three-elements-of-self-compassion-2/DiscussionQuestionsOnwhatdoyoucompareyourselfwithothers?Qualitiessuchasattractivenessandintelligence?Skillssuchasschoolperformanceorathleticism?Doothersalsomakethesesametypesofcomparisonsordoeseachpersonmakeauniqueset?Whydoyouthinkthisis?Howcanmakingcomparisonstoothershelpyou?Onewaytomakecomparisonsistocompareyourselfwithyourownpastperformance.Discussatimeyoudidthis.Couldthisexamplebedescribedasan“upward”or“downward”comparison?Howdidthistypeofcomparisonaffectyou?VocabularyCounterfactualthinkingMentallycomparingactualeventswithfantasiesofwhatmighthavebeenpossibleinalternativescenarios.DownwardcomparisonMakingmentalcomparisonswithpeoplewhoareperceivedtobeinferioronthestandardofcomparison.Dunning-KrugerEffectThetendencyforunskilledpeopletobeoverconfidentintheirabilityandhighlyskilledpeopletounderestimatetheirability.FixedmindsetThebeliefthatpersonalqualitiessuchasintelligencearetraitsthatcannotbedeveloped.Peoplewithfixedmindsetsoftenunderperformcomparedtothosewith“growthmindsets”FrogPondEffectThetheorythataperson’scomparisongroupcanaffecttheirevaluationsofthemselves.Specifically,peoplehaveatendencytohavelowerself-evaluationswhencomparingthemselvestohigherperforminggroups.GrowthmindsetThebeliefthatpersonalqualities,suchasintelligence,canbedevelopedthrougheffortandpractice.IndividualdifferencesPsychologicaltraits,abilities,aptitudesandtendenciesthatvaryfrompersontoperson.LocaldominanceeffectPeoplearegenerallymoreinfluencedbysocialcomparisonwhenthatcomparisonispersonallyrelevantratherthanbroadandgeneral.MasterygoalsGoalsthatarefocusedprimarilyonlearning,competence,andself-development.Thesearecontrastedwith“performancegoals”thatarefocusedonthequalityofaperson’sperformance.N-EffectThefindingthatincreasingthenumberofcompetitorsgenerallydecreasesone’smotivationtocompete.PersonalityAperson’srelativelystablepatternsofthought,feeling,andbehavior.ProximityTherelativeclosenessordistancefromagivencomparisonstandard.Thefurtherfromthestandardapersonis,thelessimportantheorsheconsidersthestandard.Whenapersonisclosertothestandardhe/sheismorelikelytobecompetitive.Self-enhancementeffectThefindingthatpeoplecanboosttheirownself-evaluationsbycomparingthemselvestootherswhorankloweronaparticularcomparisonstandard.Self-esteemThefeelingofconfidenceinone’sownabilitiesorworth.Self-evaluationmaintenance(SEM)Amodelofsocialcomparisonthatemphasizesone’sclosenesstothecomparisontarget,therelativeperformanceofthattargetperson,andtherelevanceofthecomparisonbehaviortoone’sself-concept.SocialcategoryAnygroupinwhichmembershipisdefinedbysimilaritiesbetweenitsmembers.Examplesincludereligious,ethnic,andathleticgroups.SocialcomparisonTheprocessbywhichpeopleunderstandtheirownabilityorconditionbymentallycomparingthemselvestoothers.UpwardcomparisonsMakingmentalcomparisonstopeoplewhoareperceivedtobesuperioronthestandardofcomparison.ReferencesDunning,D.,Johnson,K.,Ehrlinger,J.,&Kruger,J.(2003).WhyPeopleFailToRecognize 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DestructiveEmotionsAndBehaviors:TheDarkSideOfSocialComparisons.JournalofAdultDevelopment,13(1),36-44.Wills,T.A.(1981).“DownwardComparisonPrincipleinSocialPsychology.”PsychologicalBulletin90:245-71.Zell,E.,&Alicke,M.D.(2010).Thelocaldominanceeffectinself-evaluation:Evidenceandexplanations.PersonalityandSocialPsychologicalReview,14,368–384.Zuckerman,E.W.,&Jost,J.T.(2001).Whatmakesyouthinkyou’resopopular?:Self-evaluationmaintenanceandthesubjectivesideofthe“friendshipparadox.”SocialPsychologyQuarterly,64,207–223.AuthorsStephenGarciaStephenGarciaisanassociateprofessorofpsychologyandorganizationalstudiesattheUniversityofMichigan.Heisinterestedinsocialcomparison,competition,and,morebroadly,judgmentanddecisionmaking.ArnorHalldorssonArnorHalldorssonhailsfromIcelandandreceivedhisundergraduatedegreeinpsychologyfromtheUniversityofMichiganin2016.Heisinterestedinsocialcomparison,culture,andindustrial/organizationalpsychology.CreativeCommonsLicenseSocialComparisonbyStephenGarciaandArnorHalldorssonislicensedunderaCreativeCommonsAttribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike4.0InternationalLicense.PermissionsbeyondthescopeofthislicensemaybeavailableinourLicensingAgreement.HowtocitethisNobamoduleusingAPAStyleGarcia,S.&Halldorsson,A.(2022).Socialcomparison.InR.Biswas-Diener&E.Diener(Eds),Nobatextbookseries:Psychology.Champaign,IL:DEFpublishers.Retrievedfromhttp://noba.to/y4urxhvjSectionsAbstractLearningObjectives{{$data.h1.text}}{{text}}OutsideResourcesDiscussionQuestionsVocabularyReferencesAuthorsCreativeCommonsLicense×CloseDialogSignupusingyouremailEmailAddressPasswordFirstNameLastNameByjoiningNoba,youagreetotheprivacypolicy,termsofserviceandlicensingagreement. 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