What is transitional justice? - Chr. Michelsen Institute

Transitional justice incorporates a realistic view of the challenges faced by societies emerging from conflict or repression and an appreciation of their unique ...  GettyImages INTHISSECTION(PART1) Trialsorcriminalprosecutions Amnesties Truthcommissions Reparations Localjusticeinitiatives   ABOUTTHISONLINERESOURCE PART1:Whatistransitionaljustice?Abasicintroduction PART2:Civil-militaryrelationsandtransitionaljustice PART3:Thejudiciaryandtransitionaljustice PART4:Civilsocietyandtransitionaljustice Part1:Whatistransitionaljustice?Abasicintroduction Whatistransitionaljustice? AccordingtotheInternationalCenterforTransitionalJustice'Transitionaljusticereferstoarangeofapproachesthatsocietiesundertaketoreckonwithlegaciesofwidespreadorsystematichumanrightsabuseastheymovefromaperiodofviolentconflictoroppressiontowardpeace,democracy,theruleoflaw,andrespectforindividualandcollectiverights.Inmakingsuchatransition,societiesmustconfrontthepastinordertoachieveaholisticsenseofjusticeforallcitizens,toestablishorrenewcivictrust,toreconcilepeopleandcommunities,andtopreventfutureabuses.' Avarietyoftransitionaljusticemechanismscanhelpwoundedsocietiesstartanew.Theseapproachesarebothjudicialandnonjudicial,andtheyseektoencompassthevariousdimensionsofjusticethatcanhealwoundsandcontributetosocialreconstruction.Transitionaljusticeincorporatesarealisticviewofthechallengesfacedbysocietiesemergingfromconflictorrepressionandanappreciationoftheiruniqueculturalandhistoricalcontexts,withoutallowingtheserealitiestoserveasexcusesforinaction.Allstakeholdersinthetransitionprocessmustbeconsultedandparticipateinthedesignandimplementationoftransitionaljusticepolicies.Theapproachestotransitionaljusticearebasedonafundamentalbeliefinuniversalhumanrightsandrelyoninternationalhumanrightsandhumanitarianlawindemandingthatstateshalt,investigate,punish,repair,andpreventabuses.Theseinitiativesfocusontheneedsofvictimsandtheirfamilies. Themainapproachestotransitionaljusticeincludethefollowing: Domestic,hybrid,andinternationalprosecutionsofperpetratorsofhumanrightsabuse. Determiningthefullextentandnatureofpastabusesthroughtruthtellinginitiatives,includingnationalandinternationalcommissions. Providingcompensatory,restitutionary,rehabilitative,andsymbolicreparationstovictims. Institutionalreform,includingvettingofabusive,corrupt,orincompetentofficialsfromthepoliceandsecurityservices,themilitary,thejudiciary,andotherpublicinstitutions.(Vettingreferstotheprocessofexcludingfrompublicemploymentthoseknowntohavecommittedhumanrightsabusesortohavebeeninvolvedincorruptpractices.) Promotingreconciliationwithindividedcommunities,includingworkingwithvictimsontraditionaljusticemechanismsandfacilitatingsocialreconstruction. Constructingmemorialsandmuseumstopreservethememoryofthepast. Takingintoaccountgenderedpatternsofabusetoenhancejusticeforfemalevictims.   Inthissection(PartI)wewillexplorefivecentraltransitionaljusticemechanisms: Trialsorcriminalprosecutions Amnesties Truthcommissions Reparations Localjusticeinitiatives Selectedreadingsontransitionaljustice(general) Thereadingsbelowareamixtureofresourcewebpages,reports,briefs,andwidelycitedjournalarticlesinthetransitionaljusticefield.Jointly,thereadingsprovideanoverviewofwhatismeantbytransitionaljusticeandthedifferenttoolsormechanismsthattransitionaljusticeuses.ThefirstreadingprovidesadefinitionofTransitionalJustice(alsoinArabic).AfterthegeneralreadinglisttherearethreerecentshortpiecesontransitionaljusticeinSudan.Allsourcesareavailableonlineforfree,unlessstatedotherwise. TheInternationalCenterforTransitionalJustice(ICTJ)Homepage(alsoavailableinArabic) ICTJ’sAnnualReportonTransitionalJusticefor2004-05,byInternationalCenterforTransitionalJustice(ICTJ): “TheUnitedNationsApproachtoTransitionalJustice”;GuidanceNoteoftheSecretary-GeneraloftheUnitedNations(2010) "Dealingwithaviolentpast:Theimpactoftransitionaljustice",ashortCMIBriefbyElinSkaar andÅseJohanneRoti(2012) "TransitionalJusticeandPeacebuildingafterMassViolence,"journalarticlebyWendyLambourne(2009) "TransitionalJusticeGenealogy",widelyusedstate-of-the-artjournalarticlebyRutiTeitel(2003)(NB!Availableonlineagainstfee) "Context,TimingandtheDynamicsofTransitionalJustice:AHistoricalPerspective,"journalarticlebyLaurelE.Fletcher,HarveyM.Weinstein,andJamie Rowen(2009)(NB!Availableonlineagainstfee)  "TheIrreconcilableGoalsofTransitionalJustice."journalarticlebyBronwynAnneLeebaw(2008)(NB!Availableonlineagainstfee) Olsen,TriciaD.,LeighA.Payne,andAndrewG.Reiter.2010."TheJusticeBalance:WhenTransitionalJusticeImprovesHumanRightsandDemocracy."HumanRightsQuarterlyno.32(4):980-1007.(NB!Availableonlineagainstfee) TransitionaljusticeinSudan “Sudan’sTransition:LivinginBadSurroundings”,workingpaperbyGunnarM.Sørbø(2020) “IsSudanReadyforTransitionalJustice?”,blogbyElinSkaar(2019) “UN-AfricanUnionenvoysaysmistrustdeepinSudan’sDarfur”,onlinenewsarticlebySamyMagdy(December9,2020) Whataretrialsorcriminalprosecutionsforhumanrightsviolations? TheInternationalCenterforTransitionalJusticearguesthat'theinvestigationandprosecutionofinternationalcrimes—includinggenocide,crimesagainsthumanityandwarcrimes—isafundamentalcomponentoftransitionaljustice.' IthasrootsininternationallegalobligationsthatcanbetracedbacktotheNurembergtrials,andcontinuewiththe InternationalCriminalTribunalsfortheformerYugoslavia (ICTY)and Rwanda (ICTR). Investigationsandtrialsofpowerfulleaders(whetherpoliticalormilitary)helpstrengthentheruleoflawandsendastrongsignalthatsuchcrimeswillnotbetoleratedinarights-respectingsociety. Trialsremainakeydemandofvictims.Whenconductedinwaysthatreflectvictims’needsandexpectations,theycanplayavitalroleinrestoringtheirdignityanddeliveringjustice. Butprosecutionscannotachievejusticeinisolation.Thelarge-scalenatureofsuchcrimesmeansthattheyoftencannotbeprocessedthroughtheordinarycriminaljusticesystem—generatingan"impunitygap."Effectiveprosecutionstrategiesforlarge-scalecrimesoftenfocusontheplannersandorganizersofcrimes,ratherthanthoseoflowerrankorresponsibility. Implementingprosecutionstrategieswithotherinitiatives—suchas reparations programs, institutionalreform,and truth-seeking—canhelpfillthe"impunitygap"byaddressingcrimeswithlargenumbersofvictimsandperpetrators. DomesticProsecutions Prosecutionsforinternationalcrimeshavemorepotentialforimpactwhentheyarehelddomestically,withinthesocietywherethecrimesoccurred.However,societiesemergingfromconflictorintransitionmaylackthepoliticalwilltoprosecutethesecrimes,andlegalsystemsmaybeindisarray. Evensophisticatedlegalsystems—whichmainlydealwithordinarycrimes—maylackthecapacitytoeffectivelyaddresssuchcrimes. Theseproblemsmayrequireinternationalassistancethatdrawsonbestpracticesfromelsewhere—forinstancethrough“hybrid”courtsortribunals,composedofinternationalanddomesticjusticeactors.Suchcourtshavebeencreatedin SierraLeone,Kosovo, Bosnia,Timor-Lesteand Cambodia. InternationalCriminalCourt In2002,theRomeStatuteestablishedthe InternationalCriminalCourt (ICC).TheICCinvestigatesandprosecutesindividualsresponsibleforgenocide,warcrimesandcrimesagainsthumanitycommittedsinceJuly1,2002—incaseswherecountriesareunwillingorunabletodoso. Domesticcourtshavethemaindutytodeliverjustice,andhaveinrecentyearsincreasinglytakenupthisrole.TheICCisacourtoflastresort. Selectedreadingsontrials/criminalprosecution Trialsareoneofseveraltransitionaljusticetools.Thereadingssuggestedinthissectionwillgiveanunderstandingofwhatismeantbytrialsandcriminaljusticeinthecontextofhumanrightsviolations.ThefirstreadingprovidesadefinitionofCriminalJustice(alsoinArabic).Thereadingsconstituteamixofonlineresources,shortbriefs,andwidelycitedjournalarticlesinthefield.Allsourcesareavailableonlineforfree,unlessstatedotherwise. “CriminalJustice”definitionbyTheInternationalCenterforTransitionalJustice(ICTJ)(alsoavailableinArabic)  “Seeyouincourt!HoldingthemilitarytoaccountinLatinAmerica”,CMIInsightbyElinSkaar2016 "TheImpactofInternationalTribunalsandDomesticTialsonPeaceandHumanRightsAfterCivilWar,"journalarticlebyJamesD.Meernik,AngelaNichols,andKimiL.King(2010) "TheImpactofHumanRightsTrialsinLatinAmerica,"journalarticlebyKathrynSikkinkandCarrieBoothWalling(2007)  (NB!Availableonlineagainstfee) "ExplainingtheDeterrenceEffectofHumanRightsProsecutionsforTransitionalCountries,"journalarticlebyHunjoonKimandKathrynSikkink(2010) (NB!Availableonlineagainstfee)   Whatareamnesties? Inpractice,theterm“amnesty”isusedratherloosely.IntheResearchBriefAmnestiesandDDRPrograms,MarkFreemanstatesthat'Amnestymaybedefinedasalegalmeasure,adoptedinexceptionalcircumstances,whoseprimaryfunctionistoremove,conditionallyorunconditionally,theprospectandsometimestheconsequencesofalegalproceedingagainstdesignatedindividualsorclassesofpersonsinrespectofdesignatedtypesofoffenses.' ThereareatleastfourbroadtypesofamnestythatcouldapplyinsituationsinwhichaDDRprogramisinplaceorunderconsideration: AmnestiesthataredesignedaspartofaDDRprocessbutthatgrantaverybroadscopeofimpunitytoformercombatants,thustendingtofacilitatedisarmamentanddemobilization. AmnestiesthataredesignedaspartofaDDRprocessbutthatgrantamorenarrowscopeofimpunitytoformercombatants,thuspotentiallycomplicatingdisarmamentanddemobilization. AmnestiesthatarenotdesignedaspartofaDDRprocessbutthatgrantaverybroadscopeofimpunitytoformercombatants,thustendingtofacilitatedisarmamentanddemobilization. AmnestiesthatarenotdesignedaspartofaDDRprocessbutthatgrantamorenarrowscopeofimpunitytoformercombatants,thuspotentiallycomplicatingdisarmamentanddemobilization. Selectedreadingsonamnesties: Amnestiesareoneofseveraltransitionaljusticetools.Thereadingssuggestedinthissectionwillgiveanunderstandingofwhatismeantbyamnestiesinthecontextofhumanrightsviolations.Thereadingsconstituteamixofonlineresources,bookchapters,andwidelycitedjournalarticlesinthefield.Allsourcesareavailableonlineforfree,unlessstatedotherwise. “AmnestiesandDDRPrograms”,ResearchbriefbyMarkFreeman(ICTJ) "CanAmnestiesandInternationalJusticebeReconciled?",journalarticlebyLouiseMallinder(2007) "Exploringthepracticeofstatesinintroducingamnesties",draftbookchapterbyLouiseMallinder(2009)  "Amnestiesinthepursuitofreconciliation,peacebuildingandrestorativejustice",draftbookchapterbyLouiseMallinder(2011) "Globalcomparisonofamnestylaws",draftbookchapterbyLouiseMallinder(2010) "OutlawingAmnesty:TheReturnofCriminalJusticeinTransitionalJusticeSchemes",journalarticlebyLisaJ.Laplante(2009)     Whataretruthcommissions? AccordingtotheInternationalCenterforTransitionalJustice'Truthcommissionsarenon-judicialinquiriesestablishedtodeterminethefacts,rootcauses,andsocietalconsequencesofpasthumanrightsviolations.Throughtheirfocusonthetestimonyofvictimsofatrocity,truthcommissionsprovideacknowledgementandrecognitionofsufferingandsurvivaltothosemostaffected.' Thefindingsandrecommendationsofcommissionscancontributetocriminaljustice,reparations,andinstitutionalreformprocessestoredresspastabusesandpreventnewonesfromoccurring.Indoingso,theyprovideanopportunityfordividedsocietiestobegintheprocessofrebuildingcivictrustamongcitizensandintheinstitutionsinplacetoservethem. Truthcommissionsareevolvinginstitutions:theirfocusisexpandingtocovermoretypesofviolations,goingbeyondcrimesagainstphysicalintegritytoexamineviolationsofeconomic,social,andculturalrights.Theyarealsobecomingmoreadeptatcapturingandaddressingtheexperiencesofdifferentsectorsofthepopulation,includingthoseofwomen,children,andindigenouspeoples. Selectedreadingsontruthcommissions Truthcommissionsareoneofseveraltransitionaljusticetools.Thereadingssuggestedinthissectionwillgiveanunderstandingofwhatismeantbytruthcommissionsinthecontextofhumanrightsviolations.ThefirstreadingprovidesadefinitionofTruthCommission(alsoinArabic).Theremainingreadingsconstituteamixofonlineresources,bookchapters,andwidelycitedjournalarticlesinthefield.Allsourcesareavailableonlineforfree,unlessstatedotherwise. “TruthCommission”,definitionbyTheInternationalCenterforTransitionalJustice(ICTJ)(alsoavailableinArabic)  “TruthSeekingElementsofCreatinganEffectiveTruthCommission”,onlinepublicationbyTheInternationalCenterforTransitionalJustice(ICTJ)  "Truthcommissions:aschematicoverview",journalarticlebyPriscillaB.Hayner(2006) (NB!Availableonlineagainstfee) "WhatisaTruthCommissionandWhyDoesitMatter?",journalarticlebyEricWiebelhaus-Brahm(2009) "Pasttruths,presentdangers:Theroleofofficialtruthseekinginconflictresolutionandprevention”,bookchapterbyPriscillaB.Hayner(2000) "WhenTruthCommissionsImproveHumanRights",journalarticlebyTriciaD.Olsen,LeighA.Payne,AndrewG.Reiter,andEricWiebelhaus-Brahm(2010)   Whatarereparations?  Whenitcomestoreparationsandtransitionaljustice,theInternationalCenterforTransitionalJusticestatesthat'Reparationsacknowledgethelegalobligation ofastate,orindividual(s)orgroup,torepairtheconsequencesofviolations—eitherbecauseitdirectlycommittedthemoritfailedtopreventthem.Theyalsoexpresstovictimsandsocietymoregenerallythatthestateiscommittedtoaddressingtherootcausesofpastviolationsandensuringtheydonothappenagain. Withtheirmaterialandsymbolicbenefits,reparationsareimportanttovictimsbecausetheyareoftenseenasthemostdirectandmeaningfulwayofreceivingjustice.Yet,theyareoftenthelast-implementedandleast-fundedmeasureoftransitionaljustice.' Itisimportanttorememberthatfinancial compensation—orthepaymentmoney —isonlyoneofmanydifferenttypesofmaterialreparationsthatcanbeprovidedtovictims.Othertypesincluderestoringcivilandpoliticalrights,erasingunfaircriminalconvictions,physicalrehabilitation,and grantingaccesstoland,healthcare,oreducation.Sometimes,thesemeasuresareprovidedtovictims’familymembers,oftenchildren,inrecognitionthatprovidingthemwithabetterfutureisanimportantwaytoovercometheenduringconsequencesoftheviolations. Reparationscanbeimplementedthroughadministrativeprogramsorenforcedastheoutcomeoflitigation.Oftentimes,they overlapandcompeteforstateresourceswithprogramsagainstpoverty,unemployment,andlackofaccesstoresources,likeland.Inthesesituations,reparationsshouldbedesignedandimplementedinwaysthatcantransformpreviouslyunequalandunjustrelations. Reparationscanalsotaketheformofrevealingthetruthabouttheviolationsthemselvesandprovidingguaranteesthattheywillnotberepeated.Symbolicreparations–suchas apologies,memorials,andcommemorations–canbejustasbeneficial,healing,andmeaningfulasmaterialreparations. Selectedreadingsonreparations Reparationsareoneofseveraltransitionaljusticetools.Thereadingssuggestedinthissectionwillgiveanunderstandingofwhatismeantbyreparationsinthecontextofhumanrightsviolations.ThefirstreadingprovidesadefinitionofReparations(alsoinArabic).Theremainingreadingsconstituteamixofbookchapters,journalarticles,andanabstractfromthemostcentralscholarlyvolumeonreparations.Allsourcesareavailableonlineforfree,unlessstatedotherwise. “Reparations”,definitionbyTheInternationalCenterforTransitionalJustice(ICTJ)(alsoavailableinArabic)  "Womenandreparations", journalarticlebyRuthRubio-MarínandPablodeGreiff(2007) "TransitionalJusticeandVictims'RightsbeforetheEndofaConflict:TheUnusualCaseofColombia",journalarticlebyJemimaGarcía-GodosandKnutAndreasO.Lid "Reparationsdecisionsanddilemmas",journalarticlebyNaomiRoht-Arriaza(2003) (NB!Availableonlineagainstfee)  "Transitionaljusticeasglobalproject:Criticalreflections",journalarticlebyRosemaryNagy(2008) (NB!Availableonlineagainstfee) AbstractandkeywordsinthecentralbookTheHandbookofReparations,editedbyPabloDeGreiff(2008),areavailableforfree   Whatislocaljustice? IntheResearchBriefLocalJusticeandReintegrationProcessesasComplementstoTransitionalJusticeandDDR,RogerDuthiearguesthat'Justicemeasuresatthelocallevelinpost-conflictsocietieshaveattractedagrowingamountofattentioninrecentyears.Localjusticeissometimespresentedasanalternativetoorsubstituteforothermeasuresoftransitionaljustice,oftenduetopolitical,cultural,orpracticalconsiderations.Thischapterarguesthatlocaljusticeaddressesthe(comparativelyneglected)reintegrationaspectofdisarmament,demobilization,andreintegration(DDR)programsmoredirectly,quickly,andefficientlythanothertransitionaljusticemeasures.ItexamineshowlocaljusticeprocessescanbestcomplementDDReffortswithoutforeclosingothertransitionaljusticemeasures.'     Selectedreadingsonlocaljustice/restorativejustice Localjusticeorrestorativejusticemeasuresareoneofseveraltransitionaljusticetools.Thereadingssuggestedinthissectionwillgiveanunderstandingofwhatismeantbylocaljusticeorrestorativejusticeinthecontextofhumanrightsviolations.Thefirstreadingprovidesanintroductiontotheconceptoflocaljustice.Theremainingreadingsarejournalarticlesandawidelycitedscholarlybookonlocaljustice.Allsourcesareavailableonlineforfree,unlessstatedotherwise. “LocalJusticeandReintegrationProcessesasComplementstoTransitionalJusticeandDDR”,ResearchbriefbyRogerDuthie(ICTJ)(2010) "Fromtransitionaltotransformativejustice:Anewagendaforpractice",journalarticlebyPaulGreadyandSimonRobins(2014) "Massjusticeformassatrocity:Rethinkinglocaljusticeastransitionaljustice",journalarticlebyLarsWaldorf(2006) (NB!Availableonlineagainstfee)  "WhoseJustice?RethinkingTransitionalJusticefromtheBottomUp",journalarticlebyPatriciaLundyandMarkMcGovern(2008) (NB!Availableonlineagainstfee) Contentandpartsoftheexcellentbook LocalizingTransitionalJustice:JusticeInterventionsandPrioritiesafterMassViolencebyRosalindShawandLarsWaldorfwithPierreHazan(2010)areavailableforfree.