Aquatic plant - Wikipedia

Aquatic plants can only grow in water or in soil that is frequently saturated with water. They are therefore a common component of wetlands. One of the largest ... Aquaticplant FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Plantthathasadaptedtolivinginanaquaticenvironment TheflowerofNymphaeaalba,aspeciesofwaterlily BudofNelumbonucifera,anaquaticplant. Aquaticplantsareplantsthathaveadaptedtolivinginaquaticenvironments(saltwaterorfreshwater).Theyarealsoreferredtoashydrophytesormacrophytestodistinguishthemfromalgaeandothermicrophytes.Amacrophyteisaplantthatgrowsinornearwaterandiseitheremergent,submergent,orfloating.Inlakesandriversmacrophytesprovidecoverforfish,substrateforaquaticinvertebrates,produceoxygen,andactasfoodforsomefishandwildlife.[1] Macrophytesareprimaryproducersandarethebasisofthefoodwebformanyorganisms.[2]Theyhaveasignificanteffectonsoilchemistryandlightlevels[3]astheyslowdowntheflowofwaterandcapturepollutantsandtrapsediments.Excesssedimentwillsettleintothebenthosaidedbythereductionofflowratescausedbythepresenceofplantstems,leavesandroots.Someplantshavethecapabilityofabsorbingpollutantsintotheirtissue.[4][5]Seaweedsaremulticellularmarinealgaeand,althoughtheirecologicalimpactissimilartootherlargerwaterplants,theyarenottypicallyreferredtoasmacrophytes.[5] Aquaticplantsrequirespecialadaptationsforlivingsubmergedinwater,oratthewater'ssurface.Themostcommonadaptationisthepresenceoflightweightinternalpackingcells,aerenchyma,butfloatingleavesandfinelydissectedleavesarealsocommon.[6][7][8]Aquaticplantscanonlygrowinwaterorinsoilthatisfrequentlysaturatedwithwater.Theyarethereforeacommoncomponentofwetlands.[9]OneofthelargestaquaticplantsintheworldistheAmazonwaterlily;oneofthesmallestistheminuteduckweed.Manysmallaquaticanimalsuseplantssuchasduckweedforahome,orforprotectionfrompredators.Someotherfamiliarexamplesofaquaticplantsmightincludefloatingheart,waterlily,lotus,andwaterhyacinth. Historically,aquaticplantshavebeenlessstudiedthanterrestrialplants.[10] Contents 1Distribution 2Evolution 3Aquaticadaptation 3.1Reproduction 3.2Photosynthesis 3.3Morphology 3.4Buoyancy 3.5Terrestrialplantsinaquaticenvironments 4Classificationofmacrophytes 4.1Emergent 4.2Submerged 4.3Floating-leaved 4.4Free-floating 5Morphologicalclassification 6Functionsofmacrophytesinaquaticsystems 7Usesandimportancetohumans 7.1Foodcrops 7.2Bioassessment 7.3Potentialsourcesoftherapeuticagents 7.4Wastewatertreatment 8Invasiveaquaticplants 9Seealso 10References 11Externallinks Distribution[edit] Theprincipalfactorcontrollingthedistributionofaquaticplantsistheavailabilityofwater.However,otherfactorsmayalsocontroltheirdistributionincludingnutrientavailability,disturbancefromwaves,grazing,andsalinity.[9]Someaquaticplantsareabletothriveinbrackish,saline,andsaltwater.[6] Evolution[edit] Aquaticplantshaveadaptedtoliveineitherfreshwaterorsaltwater.Aquaticvascularplantshaveoriginatedonmultipleoccasionsindifferentplantfamilies;[6][11]theycanbefernsorangiosperms(includingbothmonocotsanddicots).Theonlyangiospermscapableofgrowingcompletelysubmergedinseawateraretheseagrasses.[12]ExamplesarefoundingenerasuchasThalassiaandZostera.Anaquaticoriginofangiospermsissupportedbytheevidencethatseveraloftheearliestknownfossilangiospermswereaquatic.Aquaticplantsarephylogeneticallywelldispersedacrosstheangiosperms,withatleast50independentorigins,althoughtheycompriselessthan2%oftheangiospermspecies.[13]Archaefructusrepresentsoneoftheoldest,mostcompleteangiospermfossilswhichisaround125millionyearsold.[14]Theseplantsrequirespecialadaptationsforlivingsubmergedinwaterorfloatingatthesurface.[14] Aquaticadaptation[edit] Reproduction[edit] Althoughmostaquaticangiospermscanreproducebyfloweringandsettingseeds,manyhavealsoevolvedtohaveextensiveasexualreproductionbymeansofrhizomes,turions,andfragmentsingeneral.[7] Photosynthesis[edit] Submergedaquaticplantshavemorerestrictedaccesstocarbonascarbondioxidecomparedtoterrestrialplants.Theymayalsoexperiencereducedlightlevels.[15]Thediffuseboundarylayers(DBLs)aroundsubmergedleavesandphotosyntheticstems.AquaticplantshaveDBLsthatvarybasedontheleaves'thickness,shapeanddensityandtheyarethemainfactorresponsibleforthegreatlyreducedrateofgaseoustransportacrosstheleaf/waterboundaryandthereforegreatlyinhibittransportofcarbondioxidetransport.[15]Toovercomethislimitation,manyaquaticplantshaveevolvedtometabolisebicarbonateionsasasourceofcarbon.[15] Environmentalvariablesaffecttheinstantaneousphotosyntheticratesofaquaticplantsandthephotosyntheticenzymespigments.[16]Inwater,lightintensityrapidlydecreaseswithdepth..Respirationisalsohigherinthedarkpertheunitvolumeofthemediumtheylivein.[16] Morphology[edit] FullysubmergedaquaticplantshavelittleneedforstifforwoodytissueastheyareabletomaintaintheirpositioninthewaterusingbuoyancytypicallyfromgasfilledlacunaaorturgidAerenchymacells.[17]Whenremovedfromthewater,suchplantsaretypicallylimpandlooseturgorrapidly.[18] Thoselivinginriversdo,however,needsufficientstructuralxylemtoavoidbeingdamagedbyfastflowingwaterandtheyalsoneedstrongmechanismsofattachmenttoavoidbeinguprootedbyriverflow. Manyfullysubmergedplantshavefinelydissectedleaves,probablytoreducedraginriversandtoprovideamuchincreasedsurfaceareaforinterchangeofmineralsandgasses.[17] SomespeciesofplantssuchasRanunculusaquatilishavetwodifferentleafformswithfinelydissectedleavesthatarefullysubmergedandentireleavesonthesurfaceofthewater. Somestill-waterplantscanaltertheirpositioninthewatercolumnatdifferentseasons.OnenotableexampleisWatersoldierwhichrestsasarootlessrosetteonthebottomofthewaterbodybutslowlyfloatstothesurfaceinlateSpringsothatitsinflorescencecanemergeintotheair.Whileitisascendingthroughthewatercolumnitproducesrootsandvegetativedaughterplantsbymeansofrhizomes.Whenfloweringiscomplete,theplantdescendsthroughthewatercolumnandtherootsatrophy. Infloatingaquaticangiosperms,theleaveshaveevolvedtoonlyhavestomataonthetopsurfacetomakeuseofatmosphericcarbondioxide.[19]Gasexchangeprimarilyoccursthroughthetopsurfaceoftheleafduetothepositionofthestomata,andthestomataareinapermanentlyopenstate.Duetotheiraquaticsurroundings,theplantsarenotatriskoflosingwaterthroughthestomataandthereforefacenoriskofdehydration.[19]Forcarbonfixation,someaquaticangiospermsareabletouptakeCO2frombicarbonateinthewater,atraitthatdoesnotexistinterrestrialplants.[15]AngiospermsthatuseHCO3-cankeepCO2levelssatisfactory,eveninbasicenvironmentswithlowcarbonlevels.[15] Buoyancy[edit] Duetotheirenvironment,aquaticplantsexperiencebuoyancywhichcounteractstheirweight.[20]Becauseofthis,theircellcoveringarefarmoreflexibleandsoft,duetoalackofpressurethatterrestrialplantsexperience.[20]Greenalgaearealsoknowntohaveextremelythincellwallsduetotheiraquaticsurroundings,andresearchhasshownthatgreenalgaeistheclosestancestortolivingterrestrialandaquaticplants.[21]Terrestrialplantshaverigidcellwallsmeantforwithstandingharshweather,aswellaskeepingtheplantuprightastheplantresistsgravity.Gravitropism,alongwithphototropismandhydrotropism,aretraitsbelievedtohaveevolvedduringthetransitionfromanaquatictoterrestrialhabitat.[22][23]Terrestrialplantsnolongerhadunlimitedaccesstowaterandhadtoevolvetosearchfornutrientsintheirnewsurroundingsaswellasdevelopcellswithnewsensoryfunctions,suchasstatocytes. Terrestrialplantsinaquaticenvironments[edit] Terrestrialplantsmayundergophysiologicalchangeswhensubmergedduetoflooding.Whensubmerged,newleafgrowthhasbeenfoundtohavethinnerleavesandthinnercellwallsthantheleavesontheplantthatgrewwhileabovewater,alongwithoxygenlevelsbeinghigherintheportionoftheplantgrownunderwaterversusthesectionsthatgrewintheirterrestrialenvironment.[24]Thisisconsideredaformofphenotypicplasticityastheplant,oncesubmerged,experienceschangesinmorphologybettersuitedtotheirnewaquaticenvironment.[24]However,whilesometerrestrialplantsmaybeabletoadaptintheshort-termtoanaquatichabitat,itmaynotbepossibletoreproduceunderwater,especiallyiftheplantusuallyreliesonterrestrialpollinators. Classificationofmacrophytes[edit] Thissectionneedsadditionalcitationsforverification.Pleasehelpimprovethisarticlebyaddingcitationstoreliablesources.Unsourcedmaterialmaybechallengedandremoved.(July2019)(Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) Basedongrowthform,macrophytescanbecharacterisedas: Emergent Submerged Rooted:rootedtothesubstrate Unrooted:free-floatinginthewatercolumn Attached:attachedtosubstratebutnotbyroots Floating-leaved Free-floating[25] Emergent[edit] Anemergentplantisonewhichgrowsinwaterbutpiercesthesurfacesothatitispartiallyexposedtoair.Collectively,suchplantsareemergentvegetation. Thishabitmayhavedevelopedbecausetheleavescanphotosynthesizemoreefficientlyinairandcompetitionfromsubmergedplantsbutoften,themainaerialfeatureistheflowerandtherelatedreproductiveprocess.Theemergenthabitpermitspollinationbywindorbyflyinginsects.[26] Therearemanyspeciesofemergentplants,amongthem,thereed(Phragmites),Cyperuspapyrus,Typhaspecies,floweringrushandwildricespecies.Somespecies,suchaspurpleloosestrife,maygrowinwaterasemergentplantsbuttheyarecapableofflourishinginfensorsimplyindampground.[27] Submerged[edit] Submergedmacrophytescompletelygrowunderwaterwithrootsattachedtothesubstrate(e.g.Myriophyllumspicatum)orwithoutanyrootsystem(e.g.Ceratophyllumdemersum).Helophytesareplantsthatgrowsinamarsh,partlysubmergedinwater,sothatitregrowsfrombudsbelowthewatersurface.[28]Fringingstandsoftallvegetationbywaterbasinsandriversmayincludehelophytes.ExamplesincludestandsofEquisetumfluviatile,Glyceriamaxima,Hippurisvulgaris,Sagittaria,Carex,Schoenoplectus,Sparganium,Acorus,yellowflag(Irispseudacorus),TyphaandPhragmitesaustralis.[28] Floating-leaved[edit] Floating-leavedmacrophyteshaverootsystemsattachedtothesubstrateorbottomofthebodyofwaterandwithleavesthatfloatonthewatersurface.Commonfloatingleavedmacrophytesarewaterlilies(familyNymphaeaceae),pondweeds(familyPotamogetonaceae).[29] Free-floating[edit] Free-floatingmacrophytesarefoundsuspendedonwatersurfacewiththeirrootnotattachedtosubstrate,sediment,orbottomofthewaterbody.Theyareeasilyblownbyairandprovidebreedinggroundformosquitoes.ExampleincludePistiaspp.commonlycalledwaterlettuce,watercabbageorNilecabbage.[29] Morphologicalclassification[edit] Themanypossibleclassificationsofaquaticplantsarebaseduponmorphology.[6]Oneexamplehassixgroupsasfollows:[30] Amphiphytes:plantsthatareadaptedtoliveeithersubmergedoronland Elodeids:stemplantsthatcompletetheirentirelifecyclesubmerged,orwithonlytheirflowersabovethewaterline Isoetids:rosetteplantsthatcompletetheirentirelifecyclesubmerged Helophytes:plantsrootedinthebottom,butwithleavesabovethewaterline Nymphaeids:plantsrootedinthebottom,butwithleavesfloatingonthewatersurface Neuston:vascularplantsthatfloatfreelyinthewater Manyliverwortsgroweithersubmergedoronland.Ceratophyllumsubmersum,afree-floatingplantthatgrowscompletelysubmergedEriocaulonaquaticum,anisoetidexample,growssubmergedinwater. Pistiastratiotes,anexampleofaneuston,aplantthatfloatsfreelyonthewatersurfaceLysichitonamericanusgrowsrootedinthebottomwithleavesandflowersabovethewaterline.Waterliliesgrowrootedinthebottomwithleavesthatfloatonthewatersurface. Functionsofmacrophytesinaquaticsystems[edit] Macrophytesperformmanyecosystemfunctionsinaquaticecosystemsandprovideservicestohumansociety.Oneoftheimportantfunctionsperformedbymacrophyteisuptakeofdissolvenutrients(NandP)fromwater.[3]MacrophytesarewidelyusedinconstructedwetlandsaroundtheworldtoremoveexcessNandPfrompollutedwater.[31]Besidedirectnutrientuptake,macrophytesindirectlyinfluencenutrientcycling,especiallyNcyclingthroughinfluencingthedenitrifyingbacterialfunctionalgroupsthatareinhabitingonrootsandshootsofmacrophytes.[32]Macrophytespromotethesedimentationofsuspendedsolidsbyreducingthecurrentvelocities,[33]impedeerosionbystabilisingsoilsurfaces.[34]Macrophytesalsoprovidespatialheterogeneityinotherwiseunstructuredwatercolumn.Habitatcomplexityprovidedbymacrophytestendstoincreasediversityanddensityofbothfishandinvertebrates.[35] Theadditionalsite-specificmacrophytes'valueprovideswildlifehabitatandmakestreatmentsystemsofwastewateraestheticallysatisfactory.[36] Usesandimportancetohumans[edit] Foodcrops[edit] Worldaquacultureproductionoffoodfishandaquaticplants,1990–2016 Someaquaticplantsareusedbyhumansasafoodsource.Examplesincludewildrice(Zizania),watercaltrop(Trapanatans),Chinesewaterchestnut(Eleocharisdulcis),Indianlotus(Nelumbonucifera),waterspinach(Ipomoeaaquatica),andwatercress(Rorippanasturtium-aquaticum). Bioassessment[edit] Adeclineinamacrophytecommunitymayindicatewaterqualityproblemsandchangesintheecologicalstatusofthewaterbody.Suchproblemsmaybetheresultofexcessiveturbidity,herbicides,orsalination.Conversely,overlyhighnutrientlevelsmaycreateanoverabundanceofmacrophytes,whichmayinturninterferewithlakeprocessing.[1]Macrophytelevelsareeasytosample,donotrequirelaboratoryanalysis,andareeasilyusedforcalculatingsimpleabundancemetrics.[1] Potentialsourcesoftherapeuticagents[edit] Phytochemicalandpharmacologicalresearchessuggestthatfreshwatermacrophytes,suchasCentellaasiatica,Nelumbonucifera,Nasturtiumofficinale,IpomoeaaquaticaandLudwigiaadscendens,arepromisingsourcesofanticancerandantioxidativenaturalproducts.[37] HotwaterextractsofthestemandrootofLudwigiaadscendens,aswellasthoseofthefruit,leafandstemofMonochoriahastatawerefoundtohavelipoxygenaseinhibitoryactivity.HotwaterextractpreparedfromtheleafofLudwigiaadscendensexhibitsalpha-glucosidaseinhibitoryactivitymorepotentthanthatofacarbose.[38] Wastewatertreatment[edit] Macrophyteshaveanessentialroleinsomeformsofwastewatertreatment,mostcommonlyinsmallscalesewagetreatmentusingconstructedwetlandsorinpolishinglagoonsforlargerschemes.[36] Invasiveaquaticplants[edit] Theintroductionofnon-nativeaquaticplantshasresultedinnumerousexamplesacrosstheworldofsuchplantsbecominginvasiveandfrequentlydominatingtheenvironmentsintowhichtheyhavebeenintroduced.[39]SuchspeciesincludeWaterhyacinthwhichisinvasiveinmanytropicalandsub-tropicallocationsincludingmuchofthesouthernUS,manyAsiancountriesandAustralia.NewZealandstonecropisahighlyinvasiveplantintemperateclimatesspreadingfromamarginalplanttoencompassingthewholebodyofmanypondstothealmosttotalexclusionofotherplantsandwildlife[40] Othernotableinvasiveplantspeciesincludefloatingpennywort,[41]Curlyleavedpondweed,[40]thefernallyWaterfern[40]andParrot'sfeather.[42]Manyoftheseinvasiveplantshavebeensoldasoxygenatingplantsforaquariaordecorativeplantsforgardenpondsandhavethenbeendisposedofintotheenvironment.[40] In2012,acomprehensiveoverviewofalienaquaticplantsin46Europeancountriesfound96alienaquaticspecies.ThealienswereprimarilynativetoNorthAmerica,Asia,andSouthAmerica.ThemostspreadalienplantinEuropewasElodeacanadensis(Foundin41Europeancountries)followedbyAzollafiliculoidesin25countriesandVallisneriaspiralisin22countries.[39] ThecountrieswiththemostrecordedalienaquaticplantspecieswereFranceandItalywith30speciesfollowedbyGermanywith27species,andBelgiumandHungarywith26species.[39] TheEuropeanandMediterraneanPlantProtectionOrganizationhaspublishedrecommendationstoEuropeannationsadvocatingtherestrictionorbanningofthetradeininvasivealienplants.[43] Seealso[edit] Wetlandsportal Aquaticanimal AquaticBotany(journal) Aquatic 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^abcHUSSNER,A(2012-06-07)."AlienaquaticplantspeciesinEuropeancountries".WeedResearch.52(4):297–306.doi:10.1111/j.1365-3180.2012.00926.x.ISSN 0043-1737. ^abcd"Invasivenon-nativeaquaticplants".NorthernIrelandDirectGovernmentServices.9November2015.Retrieved6February2022. ^"InvasivePennywortplant'strangling'RiverThames".BBC.27March2018. ^"Parrot's-feather".PlantLife.Retrieved6February2022. ^Brunel,Sarah;Petter,Françoise;Fernandez-Galiano,Eladio;Smith,Ian(2009),Inderjit(ed.),"ApproachoftheEuropeanandMediterraneanPlantProtectionOrganizationtotheEvaluationandManagementofRisksPresentedbyInvasiveAlienPlants",ManagementofInvasiveWeeds,InvadingNature–SpringerSeriesInInvasionEcology,Dordrecht:SpringerNetherlands,pp. 319–343,doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-9202-2_16,ISBN 978-1-4020-9202-2,retrieved2022-03-06 Externallinks[edit] WikimediaCommonshasmediarelatedtoAquaticplants. https://web.archive.org/web/20200410235322/https://aquaplant.tamu.edu/ http://aswm.org http://plants.ifas.ufl.edu 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