The 1911 Xinhai Revolution - Alpha History

The 1911 Revolution was the spontaneous but popular uprising that ended the long reign of the Qing dynasty. It is also known as the Xinhai Revolution, ... AfriezecommemoratingtheWuchinguprisingof1911 The1911RevolutionwasthespontaneousbutpopularuprisingthatendedthelongreignoftheQingdynasty.ItisalsoknownastheXinhaiRevolution,aftertheChinesecalendaryearinwhichitoccurred. Revolutionaryorigins The1911Revolutionhadseeminglybenignorigins,beginningwithdisputesandprotestsoverrailwayownershipinSichuanprovinceandsurroundingareas.TheflashpointforrevolutioncameinOctoberwhenarepublican-mindedarmyunitmutiniedinWuchang,Hubeiprovince.Theirrebelliousspiritspreadtosurroundingregions,ignitingatinderboxofrevolutionarysentiment. Bytheendof1911,nationalistrevolutionarieswereassemblingtoformanewgovernment.Thesemen,ledbySunYixian,weredeterminedtocreateaChineserepublic–buttheylackedthemeanstoforcetheQingtosurrenderpower. Intheend,SunYixianreachedacompromisewithpowerfulmilitaryleaderYuanShikai,whoseinterventionforcedtheabdicationofinfantemperorPuyi.ThisdealplacedpowerinthehandsofShikai,whowasmoreinterestedinfurtheringhisownambitionsthanChineserepublicanism. ThecrippledQingdynasty ThecollapseoftheQingdynastycameadecadeafterthefailedBoxerRebellion.  InSeptember1901,theQinggovernment,representedbyforeignministerLiHongzhang,ratifiedtheBoxerProtocol.ForitsroleinsupportingtheBoxermovementandfailingtoprotectforeignersinChina,foreignpowershittheQingstatewithpunitivemeasuresandcostlyreparations. TheBoxerProtocol humiliatedandgreatly weakenedtheQingregimebuttheQingmaintainedtheirtenuousgriponpower.Inearly1902,DowagerEmpressCixiandhernephew,thepoliticallyimpotentGuangxuEmperor,werepermittedtoreturntoBeijing. ThelateQingreforms AphotographofCixiinthefinalyearsofthedynasty,circa1905 Bynow,however,theonce-fierceDragonLadywasamorecompliantfigure,readytoaccommodate changeifitmeantprolongingherdynasty.Inherfinalyears,Cixiauthorisedaraftofpoliticalandsocialreforms,somejustas radicalasHundredDaysreformsshehadquashedin1898. In1905,Cixiapprovedacommissionforthestudyofforeignpoliticalsystems,aprecursortoconstitutionalreforminChina.TheQingbureaucracywasoverhauledandnewdepartmentsweresetuptooverseethepolice,commerce,communications,foreignaffairs,educationandlaw.Theimperialexaminationsystemwasabandonedandstepsweretakentowardestablishingamodernschoolsystem. Therewereeconomicreformsaimedatencouragingcapitalistventures.AmoreWesternisedcriminalcodewasadopted.ProhibitionsonManchu-Hanmarriageswerelifted.Socialevilslikeslavery,foot-bindingandopiumsmokingwereallbanned.AsradicalastheselateQingreformsappeared,theyweretooinsincere,toopoorlyimplementedandcamemuchtoolatetosavetheailingdynasty. ThedeathofCixi OnNovember15th1908,DowagerEmpressCixidiedinhersleep,afortnightshortofher73rdbirthday.Herdemisecameadayafterthedeathofthe37-year-oldGuangxuEmperor,whowasalmostcertainlypoisonedwitharsenic,probablyonCixi’sorders. TheQingdynastyeffectivelydiedwithGuangxuandhisoverbearingaunt.TheimperialthronepassedtotheinfantPuyi.Chinawasleftinthehandsofatwo-year-oldboyandhispoliticallyinexperiencedfather,atatimewhenitneededstronganddecisiveleadership. Meanwhile,thedyingdynastyfacedtwogatheringstorms:provincialismwithinandrepublicanismabroad.AsBeijing’spowerweakened,regionalleadersexpandedtheirown,someexploitingtheQing’sownreforms.PoliticalpowerinChinabecameevenmoredecentralised. Nationalistsandprovincialists Anartist’simpressionofSunYixianmeetingothernationalistsinHawaii OutsideChina,QingauthoritywaschallengedbyChinesestudyingabroadandnationalistslivinginexile.In1904SunYixian,thenlivinginHawaii,calledon hiscountrymento“expeltheManchubarbarians,reviveChina,establisharepublicanddistributelandequallyamongthepeople”. SunandhisfollowersorganisedpoliticalclubsliketheReviveChinaSocietyandtheTongmenghui,withtheaimofdevelopingideasforapost-QingChina.Bythemiddleofthedecade,thesegroupswererevolutionaryaswellasrepublican. NowbasedinMalaya,SunYixianandhisfollowersbeganorganisinguprisingsinChina.Theyear1907sawatleastsixunsuccessfuluprisingsagainstQingrule:inHuanggang(May),Huizhou(June),Anqing(July),Qinzhou(September)andZhennanguan(December).Theirattemptstoinciteananti-Qingrevolutionfailed,mainlyduetoalackofsupportfromordinaryChinese. Arevolutionoverrailways Whentheanti-Qingrevolutioncame,itbeganspontaneouslyratherthanatthecommandofSunYixian. ThecatalystforrevolutionwasaQingdecisiontonationalisetwoprivately-ownedrailwaysincentralChina,apolicydesignedtofundthegovernment’sBoxerProtocolreparations.WhenannouncedinMay1911,thispolicycreatedafirestormofprotest,particularlyinSichuanprovince,whereanumberoflocalbusinessmenhadinvestedtheirownmoneyintherailway. Facingconsiderablelossesifthegovernmentseizedtherailways,theseinvestorscreatedtheRailwayProtectionMovement.ThissmallbutbusygrouporganisedstrikesandprotestsinChengdu,theSichuancapital. InearlySeptember,theQinggovernorinSichuantried toshortcircuittheprotestbysendingintroopsandarrestingdissidentleaders.Thisonlyworsenedthesituationandbroughtaboutthedeathsofatleast40protestors.Beijingeventuallybackeddown,replacingthegovernorandofferingtobettercompensatethoseaffectedbythetakeoverofprivatelyownedrailways–butthesituationinSichuanhadbecomedangerouslyinflamed. TroubleinHubei RebelsinHubeiprovinceproclaimarepublicangovernmentin1911 TheQinggovernment,fearingfurtherunrest,begantomobiliseNewArmyregimentsinneighbouringHubeiprovince.Butthesemilitaryunitshadthemselvesbeencompromisedbyrepublicansandtheirsympathisers. AsignificantnumberofmilitarypersonnelinHubei,bothofficersandsoldiers,hadbecomemembersofsecretiveliterarysocieties,meetingtoreadanddiscusssubversivepoliticalliterature. BySeptember1911,theseliterarysocietiesclaimed morethan2,000members.Theyhadalsoconnectedwithradicalstudentandworkers’groupsinWuchangandotherHubeitowns.Thisrevolutionarycoalitionbeganplottinganuprising againsttheQingandstockpilingweaponsandmunitionsasearlyas1911. TheWuchangincident TheirhandwasforcedbytheaccidentalexplosionofabombonOctober9th.ThebombdetonatedinaHankoubuildingbeingusedbydissidentsoldiers,leadingtoaninvestigationandexposureoftheirsubversiveactivities. Facingarrest,theWuchangregimentmutiniedthefollowingday(October10thor‘Double-TenDay’).Therebelsoldiersstormedgovernmentbuildings,arrestedloyalistsoldiersandseized controlofthecity.OnOctober11ththerebelsdeclaredarepublicangovernmentinHubeiprovince.Theretheyhoistedaflagcontaining18connectedstars,representingtheunificationofChina’s18provinces. ArtdepictingthestrugglebetweennationalistandQingforcesin1911 ThesuccessfuluprisinginWuchangkickstartedawaveofsimilarrebellionsaroundChina.Overthenextsixweeks,therewereatleast22differentuprisingsfromChangshatoJiangsu,fromShanghaitoShandong.Ineverylocation,rebelswrestledcontrolfromprovincialpoliticiansorbureaucratsandproclaimedtheirindependencefromtheQing. Therevolutionwasachievedwithminimalviolenceforthemostpart,thoughsomeareassawheavyfightingandconsiderablebloodshed.InXi’an,Shaanxiprovince,thecity’sManchupopulationwas protectedforatimebyloyalistHuiMuslims.WhenthedefencesfellinlateOctober,around10,000Manchuswerecapturedandindiscriminatelyslaughtered.Governmentforcesalsohitbackagainsttherebels,recapturingseveralcities,includingWuchangitself. SunreturnstoChina November1911sawthereturnofSunYixian,thenationalistwriterandfounderoftheTongmenghui,whohadspentthelast15yearsofhislifecallingforanendtoQingrule.ManyconsideredSuntheonlymancapableofmanagingthedifficulttransitionfrommonarchytoChineserepublic. Forallitsoptimismthenewgovernment,basedinNanjing,stillhadtofindawaytoridChina oftheailingQingdynasty.Withoutamilitaryforce,ithadnomeanstoachievethis.OnemanwhodidwasYuanShikai,whoquicklybecamethefigureonwhomChina’sfuturehinged. AcartoondepictionofYuanShikai’spowerinlate1911and1912 TheQingattemptedtosecureShikai’sloyaltyonNovember1stbyappointinghimasprimeminister.Shikai,however,wasmoremotivatedbywhathecouldacquireforhimselfthanwhathecoulddoforhiscountry.ByDecember,thenewQingprimeministerwasnegotiatingwithrepublican agentsaboutthecreationofanewgovernment–withShikaihimselfaspresident. Meanwhile,onDecember29th,thefirstassemblyoftheprovisionalrepublicangovernmentinNanjingelectedSunYixianasitspresident.Chinanowhadachoiceoftworepublicanpresidents:oneawell-credentialednationalistwhohaddedicatedhislifetopoliticalmodernisation,theotheraself-servingmilitaryofficer whoseonlycredentialswerehiscontrolofthearmy. ThestrugglebetweenSunYixianandYuanShikaiwouldcometoshapetheearlyChineserepublic. Ahistorian’sview: “TheQinggovernmentwasoverthrownnotbyasinglerebellionbutbyadecentralisedmovementthatdevolvedpowertotheprovinces.However,itprovedextremelydifficulttoreplaceitwithagovernmentthatwasacceptabletoalltheprovincesandregionaleconomicandpoliticalintereststhathadbeeninvolvedinthestruggletobringdowntheManchus.SupportforaconstitutionalmonarchyhadebbedawayandtherewasbroadagreementamongpoliticalactiviststhatChinaneededarepublicangovernment–buttherewasnocommonunderstandingofwhatthatwouldinvolveinpractice,howitshouldbeimplementedand,ofmoreimmediateimportance,whoshouldbeinpower.” MichaelDillon 1.The1911RevolutionwasaspontaneousnationwiderebellionthateruptedacrossChinainlate1911andledtotheabdicationoftheQingdynasty. 2.Thecatalystforthe1911RevolutionwastheRailwayProtectionMovementthatemergedinSichuaninmid-1911,followedbythemobilisationof NewArmyunitsinHubei. 3.TheaccidentaldetonationofabombinWuchangthreatenedtheexposureofhundredsofrepublicansoldiers.Pre-emptingtheirarrest,thesoldiersmutinied,tookcontrolofWuchangand formedarebelgovernment. 4.DissatisfactionwiththeQingandthesuccessoftheWuchanguprisinginspiredrebellionsinamultitudeofcitiesandregionsaroundChina.Bytheendof1911,thenationwasinchaos. 5.RepublicansledbythenewlyreturnedSunYixianformedanationalistgovernmentinNanjing-buttheyhadtobrokeradealtoobtainthemilitarybackingofGeneralYuanShikai. Citationinformation Title:“TheXinhaior1911Revolution” Authors:GlennKucha,JenniferLlewellyn Publisher:AlphaHistory URL:https://alphahistory.com/chineserevolution/xinhai-1911-revolution/ Datepublished:March2,2016 Dateaccessed:November19,2021 Copyright:Thecontentonthispagemaynotberepublishedwithoutourexpresspermission.Formoreinformationonusage,pleaserefertoourTermsofUse. Searchthissite: Followus:ThisChineseRevolutionwebsiteiscreatedandmaintainedbyAlphaHistory.Itcontains184,106wordsin267pages.ThissitewaslastupdatedonOctober32021.Formoreinfo,visitAlphaHistoryorourTermsofUse.