Immanuel Kant - Wikipedia

Immanuel Kant (UK: /kænt/, US: /kɑːnt/, German: [ɪˈmaːnu̯eːl ˈkant, -nu̯ɛl]; 22 April 1724 – 12 February 1804) was a German philosopher and one of the ... ImmanuelKant FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Germanphilosopher(1724–1804) "Kant"redirectshere.Forotheruses,seeKant(disambiguation). ImmanuelKantPortraitbyJohannGottliebBecker,1768Born(1724-04-22)22April1724Königsberg,KingdomofPrussia(present-dayKaliningrad,Russia)Died12February1804(1804-02-12)(aged 79)Königsberg,EastPrussia,KingdomofPrussiaEducationCollegiumFridericianumUniversityofKönigsberg(B.A.;M.A.,April1755;PhD,September1755;PhD,[1]August1770)EraAgeofEnlightenmentRegionWesternphilosophySchool Enlightenmentphilosophy Kantianism Otherschools Classicalliberalism Correspondencetheoryoftruth[a][3] Empiricalrealism Foundationalism[4] Germanidealism[5] Indirectrealism[6] Liberalnaturalism[7] Metaphysicalconceptualism[8]Perceptualnon-conceptualism[9][10] Transcendentalidealism InstitutionsUniversityofKönigsbergTheses Principiorumprimorumcognitionismetaphysicaenovadilucidatio (September1755) Demundisensibilisatqueintelligibilisformaetprincipiis (August1770) AcademicadvisorsMartinKnutzen,JohannGottfriedTeske(M.A.advisor),KonradGottliebMarquardt[11]NotablestudentsJakobSigismundBeck,JohannGottliebFichte,JohannGottfriedHerder,KarlLeonhardReinhold(epistolarycorrespondent)[17]MaininterestsAesthetics,cosmogony,epistemology,ethics,metaphysics,systematicphilosophyNotableideas List Abstract–concretedistinction[12] Aesthetic–teleologicaljudgments Analytic–syntheticdistinction Categoricalandhypotheticalimperative Categories Cosmotheology Criticalphilosophy Copernicanrevolutioninphilosophy Disinteresteddelight Empiricalrealism Kant'santinomies Kant'spitchfork Kantianethics KingdomofEnds Mathematicalvs.dynamicalsublimity[13] Nebularhypothesis Noogonyandnoology Noumenonvs.thing-in-itself Ontotheology Primacyofpracticalreason[14] Publicreason Radicalevil Rechtsstaat Sapereaude Transcendentalschema Theoreticalvs.practicalphilosophy Transcendentalidealism Transcendentalsubject Transcendentaltheology Understanding–reasondistinction Influences WolffBaumgartenPlatoAristotleHamannEmpiricusLucretiusHumeSmithDescartesLeibnizLockeRousseauNewtonTetens[15]Crusius[16]Swedenborg(disputed)Euclid Influenced VirtuallyallsubsequentWesternphilosophy,especiallyBeck,Beneke,Bolzano,Carnap,Fichte,Frege,Guyer,Habermas,Hegel,Heidegger,Herder,Jacobi,Jaspers,Maimon,Peirce,Popper,Rawls,Reinhold,Schelling,Schleiermacher,Schlegel,Schopenhauer,Spir,Zeller Signature PartofaseriesonImmanuelKant Majorworks CritiqueofPureReason Prolegomenato​AnyFutureMetaphysics "Answeringthe​Question:WhatIsEnlightenment?" GroundworkoftheMetaphysicofMorals CritiqueofPracticalReason CritiqueofJudgment ReligionwithintheBoundsofBareReason PerpetualPeace TheMetaphysicsofMorals "OnaSupposedRighttoTellLiesfrom​BenevolentMotives" OpusPostumum Kantianism •Kantianethics Transcendentalidealism Criticalphilosophy Sapereaude Thing-in-itself Schema Aprioriandaposteriori Analytic–syntheticdistinction Noumenon Category Categoricalimperative Hypotheticalimperative "KingdomofEnds" Politicalphilosophy People GeorgeBerkeley RenéDescartes J.G.Fichte F.H.Jacobi G.W.F.Hegel DavidHume ArthurSchopenhauer BaruchSpinoza AfricanSpir JohannesTetens Relatedtopics Schopenhauer'scriticism Germanidealism Neo-Kantianism Category • Philosophyportal ImmanuelKant(UK:/kænt/,[18][19]US:/kɑːnt/,[20][21]German:[ɪˈmaːnu̯eːlˈkant,-nu̯ɛl];[22][23]22April1724 –12February1804)wasaGermanphilosopherandoneofthecentralEnlightenmentthinkers.[24][25]BorninKönigsberg,Kant'scomprehensiveandsystematicworksinepistemology,metaphysics,ethics,andaestheticshavemadehimoneofthemostinfluentialfiguresinmodernWesternphilosophy.[24][26] Inhisdoctrineoftranscendentalidealism,Kantarguedthatspaceandtimearemere"formsofintuition"whichstructureallexperience,andthereforethatwhile"things-in-themselves"existandcontributetoexperience,theyarenonethelessdistinctfromtheobjectsofexperience.Fromthisitfollowsthattheobjectsofexperiencearemere"appearances",andthatthenatureofthingsastheyareinthemselvesisconsequentlyunknowabletous.[27][28]InanattempttocountertheskepticismhefoundinthewritingsofphilosopherDavidHume,[29]hewrotetheCritiqueofPureReason(1781/1787),[30]oneofhismostwell-knownworks.Init,hedevelopedhistheoryofexperiencetoanswerthequestionofwhethersyntheticaprioriknowledgeispossible,whichwouldinturnmakeitpossibletodeterminethelimitsofmetaphysicalinquiry.KantdrewaparalleltotheCopernicanrevolutioninhisproposalthattheobjectsofthesensesmustconformtoourspatialandtemporalformsofintuition,andthatwecanconsequentlyhaveaprioricognitionoftheobjectsofthesenses.[b] Kantbelievedthatreasonisalsothesourceofmorality,andthataestheticsarisefromafacultyofdisinterestedjudgment.Kant'sviewscontinuetohaveamajorinfluenceoncontemporaryphilosophy,especiallythefieldsofepistemology,ethics,politicaltheory,andpost-modernaesthetics.[26]Heattemptedtoexplaintherelationshipbetweenreasonandhumanexperienceandtomovebeyondwhathebelievedtobethefailuresoftraditionalphilosophyandmetaphysics.Hewantedtoputanendtowhathesawasaneraoffutileandspeculativetheoriesofhumanexperience,whileresistingtheskepticismofthinkerssuchasHume.Heregardedhimselfasshowingthewaypasttheimpassebetweenrationalistsandempiricists,[32]andiswidelyheldtohavesynthesizedbothtraditionsinhisthought.[33] Kantwasanexponentoftheideathatperpetualpeacecouldbesecuredthroughuniversaldemocracyandinternationalcooperation,andthatperhapsthiscouldbetheculminatingstageofworldhistory.[34]ThenatureofKant'sreligiousviewscontinuestobethesubjectofscholarlydispute,withviewpointsrangingfromtheimpressionthatheshiftedfromanearlydefenseofanontologicalargumentfortheexistenceofGodtoaprincipledagnosticism,tomorecriticaltreatmentsepitomizedbySchopenhauer,whocriticizedtheimperativeformofKantianethicsas"theologicalmorals"andthe"MosaicDecalogueindisguise",[35]andNietzsche,whoclaimedthatKanthad"theologianblood"[36]andwasmerelyasophisticatedapologistfortraditionalChristianfaith.[c]Beyondhisreligiousviews,Kanthasalsobeencriticizedfortheracismpresentedinsomeofhislesser-knownpapers,suchas"OntheUseofTeleologicalPrinciplesinPhilosophy"and"OntheDifferentRacesofMan".[38][39][40][41]Althoughhewasaproponentofscientificracismformuchofhiscareer,Kant'sviewsonracechangedsignificantlyinthelastdecadeofhislife,andheultimatelyrejectedracialhierarchiesandEuropeancolonialisminPerpetualPeace:APhilosophicalSketch(1795).[42] Kantpublishedotherimportantworksonethics,religion,law,aesthetics,astronomy,andhistoryduringhislifetime.TheseincludetheUniversalNaturalHistory(1755),theCritiqueofPracticalReason(1788),theCritiqueofJudgment(1790),ReligionwithintheBoundsofBareReason(1793),andtheMetaphysicsofMorals(1797).[25] Contents 1Biography 1.1Youngscholar 1.2Earlywork 1.3CritiqueofPureReason 1.4Laterwork 1.5Deathandburial 2Philosophy 2.1Epistemology 2.1.1Theoryofperception 2.1.2CategoriesoftheFacultyofUnderstanding 2.1.3Transcendentalschemadoctrine 2.2Ethics 2.2.1Firstformulation 2.2.2Secondformulation 2.2.3Thirdformulation 2.2.4ReligionwithintheBoundsofBareReason 2.2.5Ideaoffreedom 2.2.6Categoriesoffreedom 2.3Aestheticphilosophy 2.4Politicalphilosophy 2.5Anthropology 2.5.1Racism 3Influenceandlegacy 3.1Historicalinfluence 3.2Influenceonmodernthinkers 3.3Film/television 4Bibliography 4.1Listofmajorworks 4.2CollectedworksinGerman 5Seealso 6Notes 7References 7.1Workscited 8Furtherreading 9Externallinks Biography[edit] Kant'smother,AnnaReginaReuter[43](1697–1737),wasborninKönigsberg(since1946thecityofKaliningrad,KaliningradOblast,Russia)toafatherfromNuremberg.[citationneeded]HersurnameissometimeserroneouslygivenasPorter.Kant'sfather,JohannGeorgKant(1682–1746),wasaGermanharnessmakerfromMemel,atthetimePrussia'smostnortheasterncity(nowKlaipėda,Lithuania).KantbelievedthathispaternalgrandfatherHansKantwasofScottishorigin.[44]WhilescholarsofKant'slifelongacceptedtheclaim,thereisnoevidencethatKant'spaternallinewasScottishanditismorelikelythattheKantsgottheirnamefromthevillageofKantvainiai(German:Kantwaggen–todaypartofPriekulė)andwereofCuronianorigin.[45][46]Kantwasthefourthofninechildren(sixofwhomreachedadulthood).[47] Kantwasbornon22April1724intoaPrussianGermanfamilyofLutheranProtestantfaithinKönigsberg,EastPrussia.BaptizedEmanuel,helaterchangedthespellingofhisnametoImmanuel[48]afterlearningHebrew.HewasbroughtupinaPietisthouseholdthatstressedreligiousdevotion,humility,andaliteralinterpretationoftheBible.[49][citationneeded]Hiseducationwasstrict,punitiveanddisciplinary,andfocusedonLatinandreligiousinstructionovermathematicsandscience.[50]InhisGroundworkoftheMetaphysicofMorals,herevealsabeliefinimmortalityasthenecessaryconditionofhumanity'sapproachtothehighestmoralitypossible.[51][52]However,asKantwasskepticalaboutsomeoftheargumentsusedpriortohimindefenceoftheismandmaintainedthathumanunderstandingislimitedandcanneverattainknowledgeaboutGodorthesoul,variouscommentatorshavelabelledhimaphilosophicalagnostic,[53][54][55][56][57][58]eventhoughithasalsobeensuggestedthatKantintendsotherpeopletothinkofhimasa"purerationalist",whoisdefinedbyKanthimselfassomeonewhorecognizesrevelationbutassertsthattoknowandacceptitasrealisnotanecessaryrequisitetoreligion.[59] Kantapparentlylivedaverystrictanddisciplinedlife;itwassaidthatneighborswouldsettheirclocksbyhisdailywalks.Henevermarried,[60]butseemstohavehadarewardingsociallife—hewasapopularteacher,aswellasamodestlysuccessfulauthorevenbeforestartingonhismajorphilosophicalworks.Hehadacircleoffriendswithwhomhefrequentlymet—amongthemJosephGreen,anEnglishmerchantinKönigsberg,whomreportedlyhefirstspoketoinanargumentin1763orbefore.Accordingtothestory,KantwasstrollinginDänhofschenGartenwhenhesawoneofhisacquaintancesspeakingtoagroupofmenhedidnotknow.Hejoinedtheconversation,whichsoonturnedtounusualcurrenteventsintheworld.ThetopicofthedisagreementbetweentheEnglishandtheAmericanscameup.KanttookthesideoftheAmericans,andthisupsetGreen,andhechallengedKanttoafight.Kantreportedlyexplainedthatpatriotismdidnotgetinthewayofhisview,andthatanycosmopolitancitizencouldtakehispositionifheheldKant'spoliticalprinciples,whichKantexplainedtoGreen.GreenwassostunnedbyKant'sabilitytoexpresshisviews,thatGreenofferedtobecomefriendswithKant,andinvitedhimtohisapartmentthatevening.Biographershavespeculatedonwhetherthe"Americans"beingreferredtowereIndiansorthecolonists,andif"English"meantsimplytheEnglishorthecolonists,becauseGreenandKantfirstmetin1763orbefore,accordingtoachampagneglasswiththenamesofKant,Green,andothersinscribedintoit,anditwouldnotmakesenseiftheconflictbeingspokenofwasthedisagreementleadingtotheAmericanWarofIndependence,astheStampActof1765wasnotuntiltwoyearslater.KanttypicallyreferredtoIndiansas"Americans",aswell.[61]BiographershavealsospeculatedthatitmayhavedatedbacktotheFrenchandIndianWar,whichstartedallthewaybackin1754. Between1750and1754Kantworkedasatutor(Hauslehrer)inJučiai(German:Judtschen;[62]nowVeselovka,Russia,approximately20 km)andinGroß-Arnsdorf[63](nowJarnołtowonearMorąg(German:Mohrungen),Poland,approximately145 km). ManymythsgrewupaboutKant'spersonalmannerisms;thesearelisted,explained,andrefutedinGoldthwait'sintroductiontohistranslationofObservationsontheFeelingoftheBeautifulandSublime.[64] Youngscholar[edit] Kantshowedagreataptitudeforstudyatanearlyage.HefirstattendedtheCollegiumFridericianumfromwhichhegraduatedattheendofthesummerof1740.In1740,aged16,heenrolledattheUniversityofKönigsberg,wherehespenthiswholecareer.[65]HestudiedthephilosophyofGottfriedLeibnizandChristianWolffunderMartinKnutzen(AssociateProfessorofLogicandMetaphysicsfrom1734untilhisdeathin1751),arationalistwhowasalsofamiliarwithdevelopmentsinBritishphilosophyandscienceandintroducedKanttothenewmathematicalphysicsofIsaacNewton.KnutzendissuadedKantfromthetheoryofpre-establishedharmony,whichheregardedas"thepillowforthelazymind".[66]HealsodissuadedKantfromidealism,theideathatrealityispurelymental,whichmostphilosophersinthe18thcenturyregardedinanegativelight.ThetheoryoftranscendentalidealismthatKantlaterincludedintheCritiqueofPureReasonwasdevelopedpartiallyinoppositiontotraditionalidealism. Hisfather'sstrokeandsubsequentdeathin1746interruptedhisstudies.KantleftKönigsbergshortlyafterAugust1748[67]—hewouldreturnthereinAugust1754.[68]HebecameaprivatetutorinthetownssurroundingKönigsberg,butcontinuedhisscholarlyresearch.In1749,hepublishedhisfirstphilosophicalwork,ThoughtsontheTrueEstimationofLivingForces(writtenin1745–47).[69] Earlywork[edit] Kantisbestknownforhisworkinthephilosophyofethicsandmetaphysics,[24]buthemadesignificantcontributionstootherdisciplines.In1754,whilecontemplatingonaprizequestionbytheBerlinAcademyabouttheproblemofEarth'srotation,hearguedthattheMoon'sgravitywouldslowdownEarth'sspinandhealsoputforththeargumentthatgravitywouldeventuallycausetheMoon'stidallockingtocoincidewiththeEarth'srotation.[d][71]Thenextyear,heexpandedthisreasoningtotheformationandevolutionoftheSolarSysteminhisUniversalNaturalHistoryandTheoryoftheHeavens.[71]In1755,KantreceivedalicensetolectureintheUniversityofKönigsbergandbeganlecturingonavarietyoftopicsincludingmathematics,physics,logicandmetaphysics.Inhis1756essayonthetheoryofwinds,KantlaidoutanoriginalinsightintotheCoriolisforce.In1757,Kantbeganlecturingongeographymakinghimoneofthefirstlecturerstoexplicitlyteachgeographyasitsownsubject.[72][73]GeographywasoneofKant'smostpopularlecturingtopicsandin1802acompilationbyFriedrichTheodorRinkofKant'slecturingnotes,PhysicalGeography,wasreleased.AfterKantbecameaprofessorin1770,heexpandedthetopicsofhislecturestoincludelecturesonnaturallaw,ethics,andanthropology,alongwithothertopics.[72] Kant'shouseinKönigsberg IntheUniversalNaturalHistory,KantlaidouttheNebularhypothesis,inwhichhededucedthattheSolarSystemhadformedfromalargecloudofgas,anebula.KantalsocorrectlydeducedthattheMilkyWaywasalargediskofstars,whichhetheorizedformedfromamuchlargerspinninggascloud.Hefurthersuggestedthatotherdistant"nebulae"mightbeothergalaxies.Thesepostulationsopenednewhorizonsforastronomy,forthefirsttimeextendingitbeyondtheSolarSystemtogalacticandintergalacticrealms.[74]AccordingtoThomasHuxley(1867),KantalsomadecontributionstogeologyinhisUniversalNaturalHistory.[75] Fromthenon,Kantturnedincreasinglytophilosophicalissues,althoughhecontinuedtowriteonthesciencesthroughouthislife.Intheearly1760s,Kantproducedaseriesofimportantworksinphilosophy.TheFalseSubtletyoftheFourSyllogisticFigures,aworkinlogic,waspublishedin1762.Twomoreworksappearedthefollowingyear:AttempttoIntroducetheConceptofNegativeMagnitudesintoPhilosophyandTheOnlyPossibleArgumentinSupportofaDemonstrationoftheExistenceofGod.By1764,Kanthadbecomeanotablepopularauthor,andwroteObservationsontheFeelingoftheBeautifulandSublime;[76]hewassecondtoMosesMendelssohninaBerlinAcademyprizecompetitionwithhisInquiryConcerningtheDistinctnessofthePrinciplesofNaturalTheologyandMorality(oftenreferredtoas"ThePrizeEssay").In1766KantwroteDreamsofaSpirit-SeerwhichdealtwiththewritingsofEmanuelSwedenborg.TheexactinfluenceofSwedenborgonKant,aswellastheextentofKant'sbeliefinmysticismaccordingtoDreamsofaSpirit-Seer,remaincontroversial.On31March1770,aged45,KantwasfinallyappointedFullProfessorofLogicandMetaphysics(ProfessorOrdinariusderLogicundMetaphysic)attheUniversityofKönigsberg.Indefenseofthisappointment,Kantwrotehisinauguraldissertation(Inaugural-Dissertation)DeMundiSensibilisatqueIntelligibilisFormaetPrincipiis(OntheFormandPrinciplesoftheSensibleandtheIntelligibleWorld).[1]Thisworksawtheemergenceofseveralcentralthemesofhismaturework,includingthedistinctionbetweenthefacultiesofintellectualthoughtandsensiblereceptivity.Tomissthisdistinctionwouldmeantocommittheerrorofsubreption,and,ashesaysinthelastchapterofthedissertation,onlyinavoidingthiserrordoesmetaphysicsflourish. TheissuethatvexedKantwascentraltowhat20th-centuryscholarscalled"thephilosophyofmind".Thefloweringofthenaturalscienceshadledtoanunderstandingofhowdatareachesthebrain.Sunlightfallingonanobjectisreflectedfromitssurfaceinawaythatmapsthesurfacefeatures(color,texture,etc.).Thereflectedlightreachesthehumaneye,passesthroughthecornea,isfocusedbythelensontotheretinawhereitformsanimagesimilartothatformedbylightpassingthroughapinholeintoacameraobscura.Theretinalcellssendimpulsesthroughtheopticnerveandthentheyformamappinginthebrainofthevisualfeaturesoftheobject.Theinteriormappingisnottheexteriorobject,andourbeliefthatthereisameaningfulrelationshipbetweentheobjectandthemappinginthebraindependsonachainofreasoningthatisnotfullygrounded.Buttheuncertaintyarousedbytheseconsiderations,byopticalillusions,misperceptions,delusions,etc.,isnottheendoftheproblem. Kantsawthatthemindcouldnotfunctionasanemptycontainerthatsimplyreceivesdatafromoutside.Somethingmustbegivingordertotheincomingdata.Imagesofexternalobjectsmustbekeptinthesamesequenceinwhichtheywerereceived.Thisorderingoccursthroughthemind'sintuitionoftime.Thesameconsiderationsapplytothemind'sfunctionofconstitutingspacefororderingmappingsofvisualandtactilesignalsarrivingviathealreadydescribedchainsofphysicalcausation. ItisoftenclaimedthatKantwasalatedeveloper,thatheonlybecameanimportantphilosopherinhismid-50safterrejectinghisearlierviews.WhileitistruethatKantwrotehisgreatestworksrelativelylateinlife,thereisatendencytounderestimatethevalueofhisearlierworks.RecentKantscholarshiphasdevotedmoreattentiontothese"pre-critical"writingsandhasrecognizedadegreeofcontinuitywithhismaturework.[77] CritiqueofPureReason[edit] Mainarticle:CritiqueofPureReason Atage46,Kantwasanestablishedscholarandanincreasinglyinfluentialphilosopher,andmuchwasexpectedofhim.Incorrespondencewithhisex-studentandfriendMarkusHerz,Kantadmittedthat,intheinauguraldissertation,hehadfailedtoaccountfortherelationbetweenoursensibleandintellectualfaculties.[78]Heneededtoexplainhowwecombinewhatisknownassensoryknowledgewiththeothertypeofknowledge—i.e.reasonedknowledge—thesetwobeingrelatedbuthavingverydifferentprocesses. PortraitofphilosopherDavidHume KantalsocreditedDavidHumewithawakeninghimfroma"dogmaticslumber"inwhichhehadunquestioninglyacceptedthetenetsofbothreligionandnaturalphilosophy.[79][80]Humeinhis1739TreatiseonHumanNaturehadarguedthatweonlyknowthemindthroughasubjective—essentiallyillusory—seriesofperceptions.[79]Ideassuchascausality,morality,andobjectsarenotevidentinexperience,sotheirrealitymaybequestioned.Kantfeltthatreasoncouldremovethisskepticism,andhesethimselftosolvingtheseproblems.Althoughfondofcompanyandconversationwithothers,Kantisolatedhimself,andresistedfriends'attemptstobringhimoutofhisisolation.[e]WhenKantemergedfromhissilencein1781,theresultwastheCritiqueofPureReason.KantcounteredHume'sempiricismbyclaimingthatsomeknowledgeexistsinherentlyinthemind,independentofexperience.[79]HedrewaparalleltotheCopernicanrevolutioninhisproposalthatworldlyobjectscanbeintuitedapriori('beforehand'),andthatintuitionisconsequentlydistinctfromobjectivereality.[b]HeacquiescedtoHumesomewhatbydefiningcausalityasa"regular,constantsequenceofeventsintime,andnothingmore."[82] Althoughnowuniformlyrecognizedasoneofthegreatestworksinthehistoryofphilosophy,thisCritiquedisappointedKant'sreadersuponitsinitialpublication.[83]Thebookwaslong,over800pagesintheoriginalGermanedition,andwritteninaconvolutedstyle.Itreceivedfewreviews,andthesegranteditnosignificance.[citationneeded]Kant'sformerstudent,JohannGottfriedHerdercriticizeditforplacingreasonasanentityworthyofcriticisminsteadofconsideringtheprocessofreasoningwithinthecontextoflanguageandone'sentirepersonality.[84]SimilartoChristianGarveandJohannGeorgHeinrichFeder,herejectedKant'spositionthatspaceandtimepossessedaformthatcouldbeanalyzed.Additionally,GarveandFederalsofaultedKant'sCritiquefornotexplainingdifferencesinperceptionofsensations.[85]Itsdensitymadeit,asHerdersaidinalettertoJohannGeorgHamann,a"toughnuttocrack",obscuredby"allthisheavygossamer".[86]ItsreceptionstoodinstarkcontrasttothepraiseKanthadreceivedforearlierworks,suchashisPrizeEssayandshorterworksthatprecededthefirstCritique.Thesewell-receivedandreadabletractsincludeoneontheearthquakeinLisbonthatwassopopularthatitwassoldbythepage.[87]PriortothechangeincoursedocumentedinthefirstCritique,hisbookshadsoldwell.[76]KantwasdisappointedwiththefirstCritique'sreception.Recognizingtheneedtoclarifytheoriginaltreatise,KantwrotetheProlegomenatoanyFutureMetaphysicsin1783asasummaryofitsmainviews.Shortlythereafter,Kant'sfriendJohannFriedrichSchultz(1739–1805)(professorofmathematics)publishedErläuterungenüberdesHerrnProfessorKantCritikderreinenVernunft(Königsberg,1784),whichwasabriefbutveryaccuratecommentaryonKant'sCritiqueofPureReason. EngravingofImmanuelKant Kant'sreputationgraduallyrosethroughthelatterportionofthe1780s,sparkedbyaseriesofimportantworks:the1784essay,"AnswertotheQuestion:WhatisEnlightenment?";1785'sGroundworkoftheMetaphysicsofMorals(hisfirstworkonmoralphilosophy);and,from1786,MetaphysicalFoundationsofNaturalScience.ButKant'sfameultimatelyarrivedfromanunexpectedsource.In1786,KarlLeonhardReinholdpublishedaseriesofpubliclettersonKantianphilosophy.[88]Intheseletters,ReinholdframedKant'sphilosophyasaresponsetothecentralintellectualcontroversyoftheera:thepantheismcontroversy.FriedrichJacobihadaccusedtherecentlydeceasedGottholdEphraimLessing(adistinguisheddramatistandphilosophicalessayist)ofSpinozism.Suchacharge,tantamounttoatheism,wasvigorouslydeniedbyLessing'sfriendMosesMendelssohn,leadingtoabitterpublicdisputeamongpartisans.ThecontroversygraduallyescalatedintoadebateaboutthevaluesoftheEnlightenmentandthevalueofreason. ReinholdmaintainedinhislettersthatKant'sCritiqueofPureReasoncouldsettlethisdisputebydefendingtheauthorityandboundsofreason.Reinhold'sletterswerewidelyreadandmadeKantthemostfamousphilosopherofhisera. Laterwork[edit] KantpublishedasecondeditionoftheCritiqueofPureReasonin1787,heavilyrevisingthefirstpartsofthebook.Mostofhissubsequentworkfocusedonotherareasofphilosophy.Hecontinuedtodevelophismoralphilosophy,notablyin1788'sCritiqueofPracticalReason(knownasthesecondCritique)and1797'sMetaphysicsofMorals.The1790CritiqueofJudgment(thethirdCritique)appliedtheKantiansystemtoaestheticsandteleology. In1792,Kant'sattempttopublishtheSecondofthefourPiecesofReligionwithintheBoundsofBareReason,[89]inthejournalBerlinischeMonatsschrift,metwithoppositionfromtheKing'scensorshipcommission,whichhadbeenestablishedthatsameyearinthecontextoftheFrenchRevolution.[90]Kantthenarrangedtohaveallfourpiecespublishedasabook,routingitthroughthephilosophydepartmentattheUniversityofJenatoavoidtheneedfortheologicalcensorship.[90]ThisinsubordinationearnedhimanowfamousreprimandfromtheKing.[90]Whenheneverthelesspublishedasecondeditionin1794,thecensorwassoiratethathearrangedforaroyalorderthatrequiredKantnevertopublishorevenspeakpubliclyaboutreligion.[90]KantthenpublishedhisresponsetotheKing'sreprimandandexplainedhimself,intheprefaceofTheConflictoftheFaculties.[90] Kantwithfriends,includingChristianJakobKraus,JohannGeorgHamann,TheodorGottliebvonHippelandKarlGottfriedHagen Healsowroteanumberofsemi-popularessaysonhistory,religion,politicsandothertopics.TheseworkswerewellreceivedbyKant'scontemporariesandconfirmedhispreeminentstatusin18th-centuryphilosophy.TherewereseveraljournalsdevotedsolelytodefendingandcriticizingKantianphilosophy.Despitehissuccess,philosophicaltrendsweremovinginanotherdirection.ManyofKant'smostimportantdisciplesandfollowers(includingReinhold,BeckandFichte)transformedtheKantianpositionintoincreasinglyradicalformsofidealism.TheprogressivestagesofrevisionofKant'steachingsmarkedtheemergenceofGermanidealism.KantopposedthesedevelopmentsandpubliclydenouncedFichteinanopenletterin1799.[91]Itwasoneofhisfinalactsexpoundingastanceonphilosophicalquestions.In1800,astudentofKantnamedGottlobBenjaminJäsche(1762–1842)publishedamanualoflogicforteacherscalledLogik,whichhehadpreparedatKant'srequest.JäschepreparedtheLogikusingacopyofatextbookinlogicbyGeorgFriedrichMeierentitledAuszugausderVernunftlehre,inwhichKanthadwrittencopiousnotesandannotations.TheLogikhasbeenconsideredoffundamentalimportancetoKant'sphilosophy,andtheunderstandingofit.Thegreat19th-centurylogicianCharlesSandersPeirceremarked,inanincompletereviewofThomasKingsmillAbbott'sEnglishtranslationoftheintroductiontoLogik,that"Kant'swholephilosophyturnsuponhislogic."[92]Also,RobertSchirokauerHartmanandWolfgangSchwarz,wroteinthetranslators'introductiontotheirEnglishtranslationoftheLogik,"ItsimportanceliesnotonlyinitssignificancefortheCritiqueofPureReason,thesecondpartofwhichisarestatementoffundamentaltenetsoftheLogic,butinitspositionwithinthewholeofKant'swork."[93] Deathandburial[edit] Kant'shealth,longpoor,worsenedandhediedatKönigsbergon12February1804,uttering"Esistgut(Itisgood)"beforeexpiring.[94]HisunfinishedfinalworkwaspublishedasOpusPostumum.Kantalwayscutacuriousfigureinhislifetimeforhismodest,rigorouslyscheduledhabits,whichhavebeenreferredtoasclocklike.However,HeinrichHeinenotedthemagnitudeof"hisdestructive,world-crushingthoughts"andconsideredhimasortofphilosophical"executioner",comparinghimtoRobespierrewiththeobservationthatbothmen"representedinthehighestthetypeofprovincialbourgeois.Naturehaddestinedthemtoweighcoffeeandsugar,butFatedeterminedthattheyshouldweighotherthingsandplacedonthescalesoftheoneaking,onthescalesoftheotheragod."[95] Whenhisbodywastransferredtoanewburialspot,hisskullwasmeasuredduringtheexhumationandfoundtobelargerthantheaverageGermanmale'switha"highandbroad"forehead.[96]Hisforeheadhasbeenanobjectofinteresteversinceitbecamewell-knownthroughhisportraits:"InDöbler'sportraitandinKiefer'sfaithfulifexpressionisticreproductionofit—aswellasinmanyoftheotherlateeighteenth-andearlynineteenth-centuryportraitsofKant—theforeheadisremarkablylargeanddecidedlyretreating.WasKant'sforeheadshapedthiswayintheseimagesbecausehewasaphilosopher,or,tofollowtheimplicationsofLavater'ssystem,washeaphilosopherbecauseoftheintellectualacuitymanifestedbyhisforehead?KantandJohannKasparLavaterwerecorrespondentsontheologicalmatters,andLavaterreferstoKantinhiswork"PhysiognomicFragments,fortheEducationofHumanKnowledgeandLoveofPeople"(Leipzig&Winterthur,1775–1778).[97] Kant'stombinKaliningrad,Russia Kant'smausoleumadjoinsthenortheastcornerofKönigsbergCathedralinKaliningrad,Russia.ThemausoleumwasconstructedbythearchitectFriedrichLahrsandwasfinishedin1924intimeforthebicentenaryofKant'sbirth.Originally,Kantwasburiedinsidethecathedral,butin1880hisremainsweremovedtoaneo-Gothicchapeladjoiningthenortheastcornerofthecathedral.Overtheyears,thechapelbecamedilapidatedandwasdemolishedtomakewayforthemausoleum,whichwasbuiltonthesamelocation. ThetombanditsmausoleumareamongthefewartifactsofGermantimespreservedbytheSovietsaftertheycapturedthecity.[98]Today,manynewlywedsbringflowerstothemausoleum.ArtifactspreviouslyownedbyKant,knownasKantiana,wereincludedintheKönigsbergCityMuseum.However,themuseumwasdestroyedduringWorldWarII.AreplicaofthestatueofKantthatinGermantimesstoodinfrontofthemainUniversityofKönigsbergbuildingwasdonatedbyaGermanentityintheearly1990sandplacedinthesamegrounds. AftertheexpulsionofKönigsberg'sGermanpopulationattheendofWorldWarII,theUniversityofKönigsbergwhereKanttaughtwasreplacedbytheRussian-languageKaliningradStateUniversity,whichappropriatedthecampusandsurvivingbuildings.In2005,theuniversitywasrenamedImmanuelKantStateUniversityofRussia.ThenamechangewasannouncedataceremonyattendedbyPresidentVladimirPutinofRussiaandChancellorGerhardSchröderofGermany,andtheuniversityformedaKantSociety,dedicatedtothestudyofKantianism.Theuniversitywasagainrenamedinthe2010s,toImmanuelKantBalticFederalUniversity.[99] In2018,histombandstatuewerevandalizedwithpaintbyunknownassailants,whoalsoscatteredleafletsglorifyingRus'anddenouncingKantasa"traitor".TheincidentwasapparentlyconnectedwitharecentvotetorenameKhrabrovoAirport,whereKantwasintheleadforawhile,promptingRussiannationalistresentment.[100] Philosophy[edit] Mainarticle:Kantianism Thissectionneedsadditionalcitationsforverification.Pleasehelpimprovethisarticlebyaddingcitationstoreliablesources.Unsourcedmaterialmaybechallengedandremoved.(April2017)(Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) InKant'sessay"AnsweringtheQuestion:WhatisEnlightenment?",hedefinedtheEnlightenmentasanageshapedbytheLatinmottoSapereaude("Daretobewise").Kantmaintainedthatoneoughttothinkautonomously,freeofthedictatesofexternalauthority.Hisworkreconciledmanyofthedifferencesbetweentherationalistandempiricisttraditionsofthe18thcentury.HehadadecisiveimpactontheRomanticandGermanIdealistphilosophiesofthe19thcentury.Hisworkhasalsobeenastartingpointformany20thcenturyphilosophers. Kantassertedthat,becauseofthelimitationsofargumentationintheabsenceofirrefutableevidence,noonecouldreallyknowwhetherthereisaGodandanafterlifeornot.Forthesakeofmoralityandasagroundforreason,Kantasserted,peoplearejustifiedinbelievinginGod,eventhoughtheycouldneverknowGod'spresenceempirically. Thustheentirearmamentofreason,intheundertakingthatonecancallpurephilosophy,isinfactdirectedonlyatthethreeproblemsthathavebeenmentioned[God,thesoul,andfreedom].Thesethemselves,however,haveinturntheirmoreremoteaim,namely,whatistobedoneifthewillisfree,ifthereisaGod,andifthereisafutureworld.Nowsincetheseconcernourconductinrelationtothehighestend,theultimateaimofnaturewhichprovidesforuswiselyinthedispositionofreasonisproperlydirectedonlytowhatismoral.[31]: 674–5(A800–1/B828–9)  ImmanuelKantbyCarleVernet(1758–1836) Thesenseofanenlightenedapproachandthecriticalmethodrequiredthat"Ifonecannotprovethatathingis,hemaytrytoprovethatitisnot.Ifhefailstodoeither(asoftenoccurs),hemaystillaskwhetheritisinhisinteresttoacceptoneortheotherofthealternativeshypothetically,fromthetheoreticalorthepracticalpointofview.Hencethequestionnolongerisastowhetherperpetualpeaceisarealthingornotarealthing,orastowhetherwemaynotbedeceivingourselveswhenweadopttheformeralternative,butwemustactonthesuppositionofitsbeingreal."[101]ThepresuppositionofGod,soul,andfreedomwasthenapracticalconcern,for Moralityinitselfconstitutesasystem,buthappinessdoesnot,exceptinsofarasitisdistributedpreciselyinaccordancewithmorality.This,however,ispossibleonlyintheintelligibleworld,underawiseauthorandregent.Reasonseesitselfascompelledeithertoassumesuchathing,togetherwithlifeinsuchaworld,whichwemustregardasafutureone,orelsetoregardthemorallawsasemptyfigmentsofthebrain...[31]: 680(A811/B839)  KantdrewaparallelbetweentheCopernicanrevolutionandtheepistemologyofhisnewtranscendentalphilosophy,involvingtwointerconnectedfoundationsofhis"criticalphilosophy": theepistemologyoftranscendentalidealismand themoralphilosophyoftheautonomyofpracticalreason. Theseteachingsplacedtheactive,rationalhumansubjectatthecenterofthecognitiveandmoralworlds.Kantarguedthattherationalorderoftheworldasknownbysciencewasnotjusttheaccidentalaccumulationofsenseperceptions. Conceptualunificationandintegrationiscarriedoutbythemindthroughconceptsorthe"categoriesoftheunderstanding"operatingontheperceptualmanifoldwithinspaceandtime.Thelatterarenotconcepts,[102]butareformsofsensibilitythatareapriorinecessaryconditionsforanypossibleexperience.Thustheobjectiveorderofnatureandthecausalnecessitythatoperateswithinitdependonthemind'sprocesses,theproductoftherule-basedactivitythatKantcalled"synthesis".ThereismuchdiscussionamongKantscholarsaboutthecorrectinterpretationofthistrainofthought. The'two-world'interpretationregardsKant'spositionasastatementofepistemologicallimitation,thatwearenotabletotranscendtheboundsofourownmind,meaningthatwecannotaccessthe"thing-in-itself".However,Kantalsospeaksofthethinginitselfortranscendentalobjectasaproductofthe(human)understandingasitattemptstoconceiveofobjectsinabstractionfromtheconditionsofsensibility.Followingthislineofthought,someinterpretershavearguedthatthethinginitselfdoesnotrepresentaseparateontologicaldomainbutsimplyawayofconsideringobjectsbymeansoftheunderstandingalone—thisisknownasthetwo-aspectview. Thenotionofthe"thinginitself"wasmuchdiscussedbyphilosophersafterKant.Itwasarguedthat,becausethe"thinginitself"wasunknowable,itsexistencemustnotbeassumed.Ratherthanarbitrarilyswitchingtoanaccountthatwasungroundedinanythingsupposedtobethe"real",asdidtheGermanIdealists,anothergrouparosewhoaskedhowour(presumablyreliable)accountsofacoherentandrule-abidinguniversewereactuallygrounded.ThisnewkindofphilosophybecameknownasPhenomenology,anditsfounderwasEdmundHusserl. Withregardtomorality,Kantarguedthatthesourceofthegoodliesnotinanythingoutsidethehumansubject,eitherinnatureorgivenbyGod,butratherisonlythegoodwillitself.Agoodwillisonethatactsfromdutyinaccordancewiththeuniversalmorallawthattheautonomoushumanbeingfreelygivesitself.Thislawobligesonetotreathumanity –understoodasrationalagency,andrepresentedthroughoneselfaswellasothers –asanendinitselfratherthan(merely)asmeanstootherendstheindividualmighthold.Thisnecessitatespracticalself-reflectioninwhichweuniversalizeourreasons. Theseideashavelargelyframedorinfluencedallsubsequentphilosophicaldiscussionandanalysis.ThespecificsofKant'saccountgeneratedimmediateandlastingcontroversy.Nevertheless,histheses –thattheminditselfnecessarilymakesaconstitutivecontributiontoitsknowledge,thatthiscontributionistranscendentalratherthanpsychological,thatphilosophyinvolvesself-criticalactivity,thatmoralityisrootedinhumanfreedom,andthattoactautonomouslyistoactaccordingtorationalmoralprinciples –haveallhadalastingeffectonsubsequentphilosophy. Epistemology[edit] Mainarticle:Transcendentalidealism Theoryofperception[edit] Mainarticle:CritiqueofPureReason Kantdefineshistheoryofperceptioninhisveryinfluential1781worktheCritiqueofPureReason,whichhasoftenbeencitedasthemostsignificantvolumeofmetaphysicsandepistemologyinmodernphilosophy.[103]Kantmaintainsthatunderstandingoftheexternalworldhaditsfoundationsnotmerelyinexperience,butinbothexperienceandaprioriconcepts,thusofferinganon-empiricistcritiqueofrationalistphilosophy,whichiswhathasbeenreferredtoashisCopernicanrevolution.[104] Firstly,Kantdistinguishesbetweenanalyticandsyntheticpropositions: Analyticproposition:apropositionwhosepredicateconceptiscontainedinitssubjectconcept;e.g.,"Allbachelorsareunmarried,"or,"Allbodiestakeupspace." Syntheticproposition:apropositionwhosepredicateconceptisnotcontainedinitssubjectconcept;e.g.,"Allbachelorsarealone,"or,"Allbodieshaveweight." Ananalyticpropositionistruebynatureofthemeaningofthewordsinthesentence—werequirenofurtherknowledgethanagraspofthelanguagetounderstandthisproposition.Ontheotherhand,asyntheticstatementisonethattellsussomethingabouttheworld.Thetruthorfalsehoodofsyntheticstatementsderivesfromsomethingoutsidetheirlinguisticcontent.Inthisinstance,weightisnotanecessarypredicateofthebody;untilwearetoldtheheavinessofthebodywedonotknowthatithasweight.Inthiscase,experienceofthebodyisrequiredbeforeitsheavinessbecomesclear.BeforeKant'sfirstCritique,empiricists(cf.Hume)andrationalists(cf.Leibniz)assumedthatallsyntheticstatementsrequiredexperiencetobeknown. Kantconteststhisassumptionbyclaimingthatelementarymathematics,likearithmetic,issyntheticapriori,inthatitsstatementsprovidenewknowledgenotderivedfromexperience.Thisbecomespartofhisover-allargumentfortranscendentalidealism.Thatis,hearguesthatthepossibilityofexperiencedependsoncertainnecessaryconditions—whichhecallsaprioriforms—andthattheseconditionsstructureandholdtrueoftheworldofexperience.Hismainclaimsinthe"TranscendentalAesthetic"arethatmathematicjudgmentsaresyntheticaprioriandthatspaceandtimearenotderivedfromexperiencebutratherareitspreconditions. Oncewehavegraspedthefunctionsofbasicarithmetic,wedonotneedempiricalexperiencetoknowthat100+100=200,andsoitappearsthatarithmeticisanalytic.However,thatitisanalyticcanbedisprovedbyconsideringthecalculation5+7=12:thereisnothinginthenumbers5and7bywhichthenumber12canbeinferred.[105]Thus"5+7"and"thecuberootof1,728"or"12"arenotanalyticbecausetheirreferenceisthesamebuttheirsenseisnot—thestatement"5+7=12"tellsussomethingnewabouttheworld.Itisself-evident,andundeniablyapriori,butatthesametimeitissynthetic.ThusKantarguedthatapropositioncanbesyntheticandapriori. Kantassertsthatexperienceisbasedontheperceptionofexternalobjectsandaprioriknowledge.[106]Theexternalworld,hewrites,providesthosethingsthatwesense.Butourmindprocessesthisinformationandgivesitorder,allowingustocomprehendit.Ourmindsuppliestheconditionsofspaceandtimetoexperienceobjects.Accordingtothe"transcendentalunityofapperception",theconceptsofthemind(Understanding)andperceptionsorintuitionsthatgarnerinformationfromphenomena(Sensibility)aresynthesizedbycomprehension.Withoutconcepts,perceptionsarenondescript;withoutperceptions,conceptsaremeaningless.Thusthefamousstatement:"Thoughtswithoutcontentareempty,intuitions[perceptions]withoutconceptsareblind."[31]: 193–194(A51/B75)  Kantalsoclaimsthatanexternalenvironmentisnecessaryfortheestablishmentoftheself.AlthoughKantwouldwanttoarguethatthereisnoempiricalwayofobservingtheself,wecanseethelogicalnecessityoftheselfwhenweobservethatwecanhavedifferentperceptionsoftheexternalenvironmentovertime.Byunitingthesegeneralrepresentationsintooneglobalrepresentation,wecanseehowatranscendentalselfemerges."IamthereforeconsciousoftheidenticalselfinregardtothemanifoldoftherepresentationsthataregiventomeinanintuitionbecauseIcallthemalltogethermyrepresentations,whichconstituteone."[31]: 248(B135)  CategoriesoftheFacultyofUnderstanding[edit] Seealso:Category(Kant) KantstatueintheSchoolofPhilosophyandHumanSciences(FAFICH)intheFederalUniversityofMinasGerais(UFMG),BeloHorizonte,Brazil Kantdeemeditobviousthatwehavesomeobjectiveknowledgeoftheworld,suchas,say,Newtonianphysics.Butthisknowledgereliesonsynthetic,apriorilawsofnature,likecausalityandsubstance.Howisthispossible?Kant'ssolutionwasthatthesubjectmustsupplylawsthatmakeexperienceofobjectspossible,andthattheselawsaresynthetic,apriorilawsofnaturethatapplytoallobjectsbeforeweexperiencethem.Todeducealltheselaws,Kantexaminedexperienceingeneral,dissectinginitwhatissuppliedbythemindfromwhatissuppliedbythegivenintuitions.Thisiscommonlycalledatranscendentaldeduction.[107] Tobeginwith,Kant'sdistinctionbetweentheaposterioribeingcontingentandparticularknowledge,andtheaprioribeinguniversalandnecessaryknowledge,mustbekeptinmind.Ifwemerelyconnecttwointuitionstogetherinaperceivingsubject,theknowledgeisalwayssubjectivebecauseitisderivedaposteriori,whenwhatisdesiredisfortheknowledgetobeobjective,thatis,forthetwointuitionstorefertotheobjectandholdgoodofitforanyoneatanytime,notjusttheperceivingsubjectinitscurrentcondition.Whatelseisequivalenttoobjectiveknowledgebesidestheapriori(universalandnecessaryknowledge)?Beforeknowledgecanbeobjective,itmustbeincorporatedunderanaprioricategoryofunderstanding.[107][108] Forexample,ifonesays"Thesunshinesonthestone;thestonegrowswarm",allthatoneperceivesisphenomena.One'sjudgmentiscontingentandholdsnonecessity.But,ifonesays"Thesunshinecausesthestonetowarm",onesubsumestheperceptionunderthecategoryofcausality,whichisnotfoundintheperception,andonenecessarilysynthesizestheconceptsunshinewiththeconceptheat,producinganecessarilyuniversallytruejudgment.[107] Toexplainthecategoriesinmoredetail,theyarethepreconditionsoftheconstructionofobjectsinthemind.Indeed,toeventhinkofthesunandstonepresupposesthecategoryofsubsistence,thatis,substance.Forthecategoriessynthesizetherandomdataofthesensorymanifoldintointelligibleobjects.Thismeansthatthecategoriesarealsothemostabstractthingsonecansayofanyobjectwhatsoever,andhenceonecanhaveanaprioricognitionofthetotalityofallobjectsofexperienceifonecanlistallofthem.Todoso,Kantformulatesanothertranscendentaldeduction.[107] Judgmentsare,forKant,thepreconditionsofanythought.Manthinksviajudgments,soallpossiblejudgmentsmustbelistedandtheperceptionsconnectedwithinthemputaside,soastomakeitpossibletoexaminethemomentswhentheunderstandingisengagedinconstructingjudgments.Forthecategoriesareequivalenttothesemoments,inthattheyareconceptsofintuitionsingeneral,sofarastheyaredeterminedbythesemomentsuniversallyandnecessarily.Thusbylistingallthemoments,onecandeducefromthemallofthecategories.[107] Onemaynowask:Howmanypossiblejudgmentsarethere?KantbelievedthatallthepossiblepropositionswithinAristotle'ssyllogisticlogicareequivalenttoallpossiblejudgments,andthatallthelogicaloperatorswithinthepropositionsareequivalenttothemomentsoftheunderstandingwithinjudgments.ThushelistedAristotle'ssysteminfourgroupsofthree:quantity(universal,particular,singular),quality(affirmative,negative,infinite),relation(categorical,hypothetical,disjunctive)andmodality(problematic,assertoric,apodeictic).TheparallelismwithKant'scategoriesisobvious:quantity(unity,plurality,totality),quality(reality,negation,limitation),relation(substance,cause,community)andmodality(possibility,existence,necessity).[107] Thefundamentalbuildingblocksofexperience,i.e.objectiveknowledge,arenowinplace.Firstthereisthesensibility,whichsuppliesthemindwithintuitions,andthenthereistheunderstanding,whichproducesjudgmentsoftheseintuitionsandcansubsumethemundercategories.Thesecategorieslifttheintuitionsupoutofthesubject'scurrentstateofconsciousnessandplacethemwithinconsciousnessingeneral,producinguniversallynecessaryknowledge.Forthecategoriesareinnateinanyrationalbeing,soanyintuitionthoughtwithinacategoryinonemindisnecessarilysubsumedandunderstoodidenticallyinanymind.Inotherwords,wefilterwhatweseeandhear.[107] Transcendentalschemadoctrine[edit] Seealso:Schema(Kant) Kantranintoaproblemwithhistheorythatthemindplaysapartinproducingobjectiveknowledge.Intuitionsandcategoriesareentirelydisparate,sohowcantheyinteract?Kant'ssolutionisthe(transcendental)schema:aprioriprinciplesbywhichthetranscendentalimaginationconnectsconceptswithintuitionsthroughtime.Alltheprinciplesaretemporallybound,forifaconceptispurelyapriori,asthecategoriesare,thentheymustapplyforalltimes.Hencethereareprinciplessuchassubstanceisthatwhichenduresthroughtime,andthecausemustalwaysbepriortotheeffect.[107][109]Inthecontextoftranscendentalschematheconceptoftranscendentalreflectionisofagreatimportance.[110] Ethics[edit] ImmanuelKant Mainarticle:Kantianethics Kantdevelopedhisethics,ormoralphilosophy,inthreeworks:GroundworkoftheMetaphysicofMorals(1785),CritiqueofPracticalReason(1788),andMetaphysicsofMorals(1797). InGroundwork,Kanttriestoconvertoureveryday,obvious,rational[111]knowledgeofmoralityintophilosophicalknowledge.Thelattertwoworksused"practicalreason",whichisbasedonlyonthingsaboutwhichreasoncantellus,andnotderivinganyprinciplesfromexperience,toreachconclusionswhichcanbeappliedtotheworldofexperience(inthesecondpartofTheMetaphysicsofMorals). Kantisknownforhistheorythatthereisasinglemoralobligation,whichhecalledthe"CategoricalImperative",andisderivedfromtheconceptofduty.Kantdefinesthedemandsofmorallawas"categoricalimperatives".Categoricalimperativesareprinciplesthatareintrinsicallyvalid;theyaregoodinandofthemselves;theymustbeobeyedinallsituationsandcircumstances,ifourbehavioristoobservethemorallaw.TheCategoricalImperativeprovidesatestagainstwhichmoralstatementscanbeassessed.Kantalsostatedthatthemoralmeansandendscanbeappliedtothecategoricalimperative,thatrationalbeingscanpursuecertain"ends"usingtheappropriate"means".Endsbasedonphysicalneedsorwantscreatehypotheticalimperatives.Thecategoricalimperativecanonlybebasedonsomethingthatisan"endinitself",thatis,anendthatisnotameanstosomeotherneed,desire,orpurpose.[112]Kantbelievedthatthemorallawisaprincipleofreasonitself,andisnotbasedoncontingentfactsabouttheworld,suchaswhatwouldmakeushappy,buttoactonthemorallawwhichhasnoothermotivethan"worthinesstobehappy".[31]: 677(A806/B834) Accordingly,hebelievedthatmoralobligationappliesonlytorationalagents.[113] Unlikeahypotheticalimperative,acategoricalimperativeisanunconditionalobligation;ithastheforceofanobligationregardlessofourwillordesires[114]InGroundworkoftheMetaphysicofMorals(1785)Kantenumeratedthreeformulationsofthecategoricalimperativethathebelievedtoberoughlyequivalent.[115]Inthesamebook,Kantstated: Actonlyaccordingtothatmaximwherebyyoucan,atthesametime,willthatitshouldbecomeauniversallaw.[116] AccordingtoKant,onecannotmakeexceptionsforoneself.Thephilosophicalmaximonwhichoneactsshouldalwaysbeconsideredtobeauniversallawwithoutexception.Onecannotallowoneselftodoaparticularactionunlessonethinksitappropriatethatthereasonfortheactionshouldbecomeauniversallaw.Forexample,oneshouldnotsteal,howeverdirethecircumstances—because,bypermittingoneselftosteal,onemakesstealingauniversallyacceptableact.Thisisthefirstformulationofthecategoricalimperative,oftenknownastheuniversalizabilityprinciple. Kantbelievedthat,ifanactionisnotdonewiththemotiveofduty,thenitiswithoutmoralvalue.Hethoughtthateveryactionshouldhavepureintentionbehindit;otherwise,itismeaningless.Thefinalresultisnotthemostimportantaspectofanaction;rather,howthepersonfeelswhilecarryingouttheactionisthetimewhenvalueisattachedtotheresult. InGroundworkoftheMetaphysicofMorals,Kantalsopositedthe"counter-utilitarianideathatthereisadifferencebetweenpreferencesandvalues,andthatconsiderationsofindividualrightstempercalculationsofaggregateutility",aconceptthatisanaxiomineconomics:[117] Everythinghaseitherapriceoradignity.Whateverhasapricecanbereplacedbysomethingelseasitsequivalent;ontheotherhand,whateverisaboveallprice,andthereforeadmitsofnoequivalent,hasadignity.Butthatwhichconstitutestheconditionunderwhichalonesomethingcanbeanendinitselfdoesnothavemererelativeworth,i.e.,price,butanintrinsicworth,i.e.,adignity.(p.53,italicsinoriginal). AphrasequotedbyKant,whichisusedtosummarizethecounter-utilitariannatureofhismoralphilosophy,isFiatjustitia,pereatmundus("Letjusticebedone,thoughtheworldperish"),whichhetranslateslooselyas"Letjusticereignevenifalltherascalsintheworldshouldperishfromit".Thisappearsinhis1795PerpetualPeace:APhilosophicalSketch("ZumewigenFrieden.EinphilosophischerEntwurf"),Appendix1.[118][119][120] Firstformulation[edit] InhisMetaphysics,ImmanuelKantintroducedthecategoricalimperative:"Actonlyaccordingtothatmaximwherebyyoucan,atthesametime,willthatitshouldbecomeauniversallaw." Thefirstformulation(FormulaofUniversalLaw)ofthemoralimperative"requiresthatthemaximsbechosenasthoughtheyshouldholdasuniversallawsofnature".[115]Thisformulationinprinciplehasasitssupremelawthecreed"Alwaysactaccordingtothatmaximwhoseuniversalityasalawyoucanatthesametimewill"andisthe"onlyconditionunderwhichawillcannevercomeintoconflictwithitself[....]"[121] Oneinterpretationofthefirstformulationiscalledthe"universalizabilitytest".[122]Anagent'smaxim,accordingtoKant,ishis"subjectiveprincipleofhumanactions":thatis,whattheagentbelievesishisreasontoact.[123]Theuniversalisabilitytesthasfivesteps: Findtheagent'smaxim(i.e.,anactionpairedwithitsmotivation).Take,forexample,thedeclaration"Iwilllieforpersonalbenefit".Lyingistheaction;themotivationistofulfillsomesortofdesire.Together,theyformthemaxim. Imagineapossibleworldinwhicheveryoneinasimilarpositiontothereal-worldagentfollowedthatmaxim. Decideifcontradictionsorirrationalitieswouldariseinthepossibleworldasaresultoffollowingthemaxim. Ifacontradictionorirrationalitywouldarise,actingonthatmaximisnotallowedintherealworld. Ifthereisnocontradiction,thenactingonthatmaximispermissible,andissometimesrequired. (Foramodernparallel,seeJohnRawls'hypotheticalsituation,theoriginalposition.) Secondformulation[edit] Thesecondformulation(orFormulaoftheEndinItself)holdsthat"therationalbeing,asbyitsnatureanendandthusasanendinitself,mustserveineverymaximastheconditionrestrictingallmerelyrelativeandarbitraryends".[115]Theprincipledictatesthatyou"[a]ctwithreferencetoeveryrationalbeing(whetheryourselforanother)sothatitisanendinitselfinyourmaxim",meaningthattherationalbeingis"thebasisofallmaximsofaction"and"mustbetreatedneverasameremeansbutasthesupremelimitingconditionintheuseofallmeans,i.e.,asanendatthesametime".[124] Thirdformulation[edit] Thethirdformulation(i.e.FormulaofAutonomy)isasynthesisofthefirsttwoandisthebasisforthe"completedeterminationofallmaxims".Itstates"thatallmaximswhichstemfromautonomouslegislationoughttoharmonizewithapossiblerealmofendsaswitharealmofnature".[115] Inprinciple,"Soactasifyourmaximsshouldserveatthesametimeastheuniversallaw(ofallrationalbeings)",meaningthatweshouldsoactthatwemaythinkofourselvesas"amemberintheuniversalrealmofends",legislatinguniversallawsthroughourmaxims(thatis,auniversalcodeofconduct),ina"possiblerealmofends".[125]Noonemayelevatethemselvesabovetheuniversallaw,thereforeitisone'sdutytofollowthemaxim(s). ReligionwithintheBoundsofBareReason[edit] Mainarticle:ReligionwithintheBoundsofBareReason Commentators,startinginthe20thcentury,havetendedtoseeKantashavingastrainedrelationshipwithreligion,thoughthiswasnottheprevalentviewinthe19thcentury.KarlLeonhardReinhold,whoselettersfirstmadeKantfamous,wrote"IbelievethatImayinferwithoutreservationthattheinterestofreligion,andofChristianityinparticular,accordscompletelywiththeresultoftheCritiqueofReason."[126]JohannSchultz,whowroteoneofthefirstKantcommentaries,wrote"AnddoesnotthissystemitselfcoheremostsplendidlywiththeChristianreligion?Donotthedivinityandbeneficenceofthelatterbecomeallthemoreevident?"[127]Thisviewcontinuedthroughoutthe19thcentury,asnotedbyFriedrichNietzsche,whosaid"Kant'ssuccessismerelyatheologian'ssuccess."[128]ThereasonfortheseviewswasKant'smoraltheology,andthewidespreadbeliefthathisphilosophywasthegreatantithesistoSpinozism,whichhadbeenconvulsingtheEuropeanacademyformuchofthe18thcentury.SpinozismwaswidelyseenasthecauseofthePantheismcontroversy,andasaformofsophisticatedpantheismorevenatheism.AsKant'sphilosophydisregardedthepossibilityofarguingforGodthroughpurereasonalone,forthesamereasonsitalsodisregardedthepossibilityofarguingagainstGodthroughpurereasonalone.This,coupledwithhismoralphilosophy(hisargumentthattheexistenceofmoralityisarationalreasonwhyGodandanafterlifedoandmustexist),wasthereasonhewasseenbymany,atleastthroughtheendofthe19thcentury,asagreatdefenderofreligioningeneralandChristianityinparticular.[citationneeded] KantarticulateshisstrongestcriticismsoftheorganizationandpracticesofreligiousorganizationstothosethatencouragewhatheseesasareligionofcounterfeitservicetoGod.[129]Amongthemajortargetsofhiscriticismareexternalritual,superstitionandahierarchicalchurchorder.HeseestheseaseffortstomakeoneselfpleasingtoGodinwaysotherthanconscientiousadherencetotheprincipleofmoralrightnessinchoosingandactinguponone'smaxims.Kant'scriticismsonthesematters,alongwithhisrejectionofcertaintheoreticalproofsgroundedinpurereason(particularlytheontologicalargument)fortheexistenceofGodandhisphilosophicalcommentaryonsomeChristiandoctrines,haveresultedininterpretationsthatseeKantashostiletoreligioningeneralandChristianityinparticular(e.g.,Walsh1967).Nevertheless,otherinterpretersconsiderthatKantwastryingtomarkoffdefensiblefromindefensibleChristianbelief.[130]KantseesinJesusChristtheaffirmationofa"puremoraldispositionoftheheart"that"canmakemanwell-pleasingtoGod".[129]RegardingKant'sconceptionofreligion,somecriticshavearguedthathewassympathetictodeism.[131]OthercriticshavearguedthatKant'smoralconceptionmovesfromdeismtotheism(asmoraltheism),forexampleAllenW.Wood[132]andMeroldWestphal.[133]AsforKant'sbookReligionwithintheBoundsofBareReason,[89]itwasemphasizedthatKantreducedreligiositytorationality,religiontomoralityandChristianitytoethics.[134]However,manyinterpreters,includingAllenW.Wood[135]andLawrencePasternack,[136]nowagreewithStephenPalmquist'sclaimthatabetterwayofreadingKant'sReligionistoseehimasraisingmoralitytothestatusofreligion.[137] Ideaoffreedom[edit] IntheCritiqueofPureReason,Kantdistinguishesbetweenthetranscendentalideaoffreedom,whichasapsychologicalconceptis"mainlyempirical"andrefersto"whetherafacultyofbeginningaseriesofsuccessivethingsorstatesfromitselfistobeassumed"[31]: 486(A448/B467) andthepracticalconceptoffreedomastheindependenceofourwillfromthe"coercion"or"necessitationthroughsensuousimpulses".Kantfindsitasourceofdifficultythatthepracticalideaoffreedomisfoundedonthetranscendentalideaoffreedom,[31]: 533(A533–4/B561–2) butforthesakeofpracticalinterestsusesthepracticalmeaning,taking"noaccountof...itstranscendentalmeaning,"whichhefeelswasproperly"disposedof"intheThirdAntinomy,andasanelementinthequestionofthefreedomofthewillisforphilosophy"arealstumblingblock"thathasembarrassedspeculativereason.[31]: 486(A448/B467)  Kantcallspractical"everythingthatispossiblethroughfreedom",andthepurepracticallawsthatarenevergiventhroughsensuousconditionsbutareheldanalogouslywiththeuniversallawofcausalityaremorallaws.Reasoncangiveusonlythe"pragmaticlawsoffreeactionthroughthesenses",butpurepracticallawsgivenbyreasonapriori[31]: 486(A448/B467) dictate"whatistobedone".[31]: 674–676(A800–2/B828–30) (ThesamedistinctionoftranscendentalandpracticalmeaningcanbeappliedtotheideaofGod,withtheprovisothatthepracticalconceptoffreedomcanbeexperienced.[138]) Categoriesoffreedom[edit] IntheCritiqueofPracticalReason,attheendofthesecondMainPartoftheAnalytics,[139]Kantintroducesthecategoriesoffreedom,inanalogywiththecategoriesofunderstandingtheirpracticalcounterparts.Kant'scategoriesoffreedomapparentlyfunctionprimarilyasconditionsforthepossibilityforactions(i)tobefree,(ii)tobeunderstoodasfreeand(iii)tobemorallyevaluated.ForKant,althoughactionsastheoreticalobjectsareconstitutedbymeansofthetheoreticalcategories,actionsaspracticalobjects(objectsofpracticaluseofreason,andwhichcanbegoodorbad)areconstitutedbymeansofthecategoriesoffreedom.Onlyinthiswaycanactions,asphenomena,beaconsequenceoffreedom,andbeunderstoodandevaluatedassuch.[140] Aestheticphilosophy[edit] KantdiscussesthesubjectivenatureofaestheticqualitiesandexperiencesinObservationsontheFeelingoftheBeautifulandSublime(1764).Kant'scontributiontoaesthetictheoryisdevelopedintheCritiqueofJudgment(1790)whereheinvestigatesthepossibilityandlogicalstatusof"judgmentsoftaste."Inthe"CritiqueofAestheticJudgment,"thefirstmajordivisionoftheCritiqueofJudgment,Kantusedtheterm"aesthetic"inamannerthat,accordingtoKantscholarW.H.Walsh,differsfromitsmodernsense.[141]IntheCritiqueofPureReason,tonoteessentialdifferencesbetweenjudgmentsoftaste,moraljudgments,andscientificjudgments,Kantabandonedtheterm"aesthetic"as"designatingthecritiqueoftaste,"notingthatjudgmentsoftastecouldneverbe"directed"by"lawsapriori."[142]AfterA.G.Baumgarten,whowroteAesthetica(1750–58),[143]Kantwasoneofthefirstphilosopherstodevelopandintegrateaesthetictheoryintoaunifiedandcomprehensivephilosophicalsystem,utilizingideasthatplayedanintegralrolethroughouthisphilosophy.[144] Inthechapter"AnalyticoftheBeautiful"intheCritiqueofJudgment,Kantstatesthatbeautyisnotapropertyofanartworkornaturalphenomenon,butisinsteadconsciousnessofthepleasurethatattendsthe'freeplay'oftheimaginationandtheunderstanding.Eventhoughitappearsthatweareusingreasontodecidewhatisbeautiful,thejudgmentisnotacognitivejudgment,[145]"andisconsequentlynotlogical,butaesthetical"(§1).Apurejudgementoftasteissubjectivesinceitreferstotheemotionalresponseofthesubjectandisbaseduponnothingbutesteemforanobjectitself:itisadisinterestedpleasure,andwefeelthatpurejudgementsoftaste(i.e.judgementsofbeauty),layclaimtouniversalvalidity(§§20–22).Itisimportanttonotethatthisuniversalvalidityisnotderivedfromadeterminateconceptofbeautybutfromcommonsense(§40).Kantalsobelievedthatajudgementoftastesharescharacteristicsengagedinamoraljudgement:botharedisinterested,andweholdthemtobeuniversal.Inthechapter"AnalyticoftheSublime"Kantidentifiesthesublimeasanaestheticqualitythat,likebeauty,issubjective,butunlikebeautyreferstoanindeterminaterelationshipbetweenthefacultiesoftheimaginationandofreason,andsharesthecharacterofmoraljudgmentsintheuseofreason.Thefeelingofthesublime,dividedintotwodistinctmodes(themathematicalandthedynamicalsublime),describestwosubjectivemomentsthatconcerntherelationshipofthefacultyoftheimaginationtoreason.Somecommentators[146]arguethatKant'scriticalphilosophycontainsathirdkindofthesublime,themoralsublime,whichistheaestheticresponsetothemorallaworarepresentation,andadevelopmentofthe"noble"sublimeinKant'stheoryof1764.Themathematicalsublimeresultsfromthefailureoftheimaginationtocomprehendnaturalobjectsthatappearboundlessandformless,orappear"absolutelygreat"(§§23–25).Thisimaginativefailureisthenrecuperatedthroughthepleasuretakeninreason'sassertionoftheconceptofinfinity.Inthismovethefacultyofreasonprovesitselfsuperiortoourfalliblesensibleself(§§25–26).Inthedynamicalsublimethereisthesenseofannihilationofthesensibleselfastheimaginationtriestocomprehendavastmight.Thispowerofnaturethreatensusbutthroughtheresistanceofreasontosuchsensibleannihilation,thesubjectfeelsapleasureandasenseofthehumanmoralvocation.Thisappreciationofmoralfeelingthroughexposuretothesublimehelpstodevelopmoralcharacter. Kantdevelopedatheoryofhumor(§54)thathasbeeninterpretedasan"incongruity"theory.HeillustratedhistheoryofhumorbytellingthreenarrativejokesintheCritiqueofJudgment.Hethoughtthatthephysiologicalimpactofhumorisakintothatofmusic.[147]Hisknowledgeofmusic,however,hasbeenreportedtobemuchweakerthanhissenseofhumor:Hetoldmanymorejokesthroughouthislecturesandwritings.[148] Kantdevelopedadistinctionbetweenanobjectofartasamaterialvaluesubjecttotheconventionsofsocietyandthetranscendentalconditionofthejudgmentoftasteasa"refined"valueinhisIdeaofAUniversalHistory(1784).IntheFourthandFifthThesesofthatworkheidentifiedallartasthe"fruitsofunsociableness"duetomen's"antagonisminsociety"[149]and,intheSeventhThesis,assertedthatwhilesuchmaterialpropertyisindicativeofacivilizedstate,onlytheidealofmoralityandtheuniversalizationofrefinedvaluethroughtheimprovementofthemind"belongstoculture".[150] Politicalphilosophy[edit] Mainarticle:PoliticalphilosophyofImmanuelKant PartofaseriesonLiberalism History AgeofEnlightenment Listofliberaltheorists(contributionstoliberaltheory) Ideas Consentofthegoverned Dueprocess Democracy Economicliberalism Economicglobalization Equality Gender Legal Federalism Freedom Economic Market Trade Press Religion Speech Harmprinciple Internationalism Invisiblehand Labortheoryofproperty Lockeanproviso Laissez-faire Liberty Negative Positive Limitedgovernment Marketeconomy Naturalmonopoly Opensociety Permissivesociety Popularsovereignty Property Private Public Rights Civilandpolitical Naturalandlegal Toownproperty Tobeararms Ruleoflaw Secularism Separationofchurchandstate Separationofpowers Socialcontract Socialjustice Basicincome Socialservices Welfarestate Stateofnature Schoolsofthought Classical Conservative Cultural Democratic Feminist Equity Green Internationalist Muscular National Neo Ordo Radical Radicalcentrism Religious Christian Catholic Islamic Jewish Secular Social Techno ThirdWay Thinkers Acton Alberdi Arnold Aron Badawi Bastiat Bentham Berlin Burke Čapek Cassirer Collingwood Condorcet Constant Croce Emerson Friedman Guizot Hayek Hobhouse Hu Humboldt Jouvenel Kant Keynes Korais Kymlicka Leoni List Locke Martineau Mill Milton Mises Montesquieu Nozick Ortega Paine Popper Priestley Rawls Ricardo Rousseau Say Sen Smith Spencer Spinoza Staël Tocqueville Turgot Voltaire Weber Wollstonecraft Politicians Artigas Bright Broglie Cavour Cobden Deák Deakin Einaudi Gladstone Gokhale Itagaki Jefferson Jenkins Juárez Kemal Kennedy King Kołłątaj Kossuth Lamartine Levski Lincoln LloydGeorge Macaulay Madison Madero Mazzini Milyukov Mommsen Naoroji Ohlin Pearson PinoSuárez Rathenau Roosevelt Sarmiento Ståhlberg Venizelos Organizations AfricaLiberalNetwork AllianceofLiberalsandDemocratsforEurope AllianceofLiberalsandDemocratsforEuropeParty AmnestyInternational ArabLiberalFederation CouncilofAsianLiberalsandDemocrats EuropeanDemocraticParty EuropeanLiberalYouth EuropeanPartyforIndividualLiberty HumanistsInternational InternationalAllianceofLibertarianParties InternationalFederationofLiberalYouth LiberalInternational LiberalNetworkforLatinAmerica Liberalparties LiberalSouthEastEuropeanNetwork Regionalvariants Europe LatinAmerica Albania Armenia Australia Austria Belgium Bolivia Brazil Bulgaria Canada China Chile Colombia Croatia Cuba Cyprus Czechlands Denmark Ecuador Egypt Estonia Finland France Georgia Germany Greece Venizelism Honduras HongKong Hungary Iceland India Iran Israel Italy Liberism Japan Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Macedonia Mexico Moldova Montenegro Netherlands NewZealand Nicaragua Nigeria Norway Panama Paraguay Poland Cracovian Peru Philippines Portugal Romania Russia Senegal Serbia Slovakia Slovenia Spain SouthAfrica SouthKorea Sweden Switzerland Thailand Tunisia Turkey Ukraine UnitedKingdom Cobdenism Gladstonian Manchester Whiggism UnitedStates ArizonaSchool Classical Jeffersonian Modern Uruguay Venezuela Zimbabwe Relatedtopics Anti-authoritarianism Anti-communism Biasinacademia Biasinthemedia Capitalism Democratic Centrism Economicfreedom Egalitarianism Empiricism Humanism Individualism Anarchist Landvaluetax Libertarianism Left Right PirateParty Progressivism Sexuallyliberalfeminism Utilitarianism  Liberalismportal  Politicsportalvte InPerpetualPeace:APhilosophicalSketch,[151]Kantlistedseveralconditionsthathethoughtnecessaryforendingwarsandcreatingalastingpeace.Theyincludedaworldofconstitutionalrepublics.[152]HisclassicalrepublicantheorywasextendedintheScienceofRight,thefirstpartoftheMetaphysicsofMorals(1797).[153]Kantbelievedthatuniversalhistoryleadstotheultimateworldofrepublicanstatesatpeace,buthistheorywasnotpragmatic.Theprocesswasdescribedin"PerpetualPeace"asnaturalratherthanrational: Theguaranteeofperpetualpeaceisnothinglessthanthatgreatartist,nature...Inhermechanicalcourseweseethatheraimistoproduceaharmonyamongmen,againsttheirwill,andindeedthroughtheirdiscord.Asanecessityworkingaccordingtolawswedonotknow,wecallitdestiny.But,consideringitsdesignsinuniversalhistory,wecallit"providence,"inasmuchaswediscerninittheprofoundwisdomofahighercausewhichpredeterminesthecourseofnatureanddirectsittotheobjectivefinalendofthehumanrace.[154] Kant'spoliticalthoughtcanbesummarizedasrepublicangovernmentandinternationalorganization."InmorecharacteristicallyKantianterms,itisdoctrineofthestatebaseduponthelaw(Rechtsstaat)andofeternalpeace.Indeed,ineachoftheseformulations,bothtermsexpressthesameidea:thatoflegalconstitutionorof'peacethroughlaw'.Kant'spoliticalphilosophy,beingessentiallyalegaldoctrine,rejectsbydefinitiontheoppositionbetweenmoraleducationandtheplayofpassionsasalternatefoundationsforsociallife.Thestateisdefinedastheunionofmenunderlaw.Thestateisconstitutedbylawswhicharenecessaryaprioribecausetheyflowfromtheveryconceptoflaw."Aregimecanbejudgedbynoothercriterianorbeassignedanyotherfunctions,thanthosepropertothelawfulorderassuch."[155] Heopposed"democracy,"whichathistimemeantdirectdemocracy,believingthatmajorityruleposedathreattoindividualliberty.Hestated,"...democracyis,properlyspeaking,necessarilyadespotism,becauseitestablishesanexecutivepowerinwhich'all'decidefororevenagainstonewhodoesnotagree;thatis,'all,'whoarenotquiteall,decide,andthisisacontradictionofthegeneralwillwithitselfandwithfreedom."[156]Aswithmostwritersatthetime,hedistinguishedthreeformsofgovernmenti.e.democracy,aristocracy,andmonarchywithmixedgovernmentasthemostidealformofit. Anthropology[edit] 5DM1974Dsilvercoincommemoratingthe250thbirthdayofImmanuelKantinKönigsberg Kantlecturedonanthropology,thestudyofhumannature,fortwenty-threeandahalfyears.[157]HisAnthropologyfromaPragmaticPointofViewwaspublishedin1798.(ThiswasthesubjectofMichelFoucault'ssecondarydissertationforhisStatedoctorate,IntroductiontoKant'sAnthropology.)Kant'sLecturesonAnthropologywerepublishedforthefirsttimein1997inGerman.[158]IntroductiontoKant'sAnthropologywastranslatedintoEnglishandpublishedbytheCambridgeTextsintheHistoryofPhilosophyseriesin2006.[159] Kantwasamongthefirstpeopleofhistimetointroduceanthropologyasanintellectualareaofstudy,longbeforethefieldgainedpopularity,andhistextsareconsideredtohaveadvancedthefield.HispointofviewwastoinfluencetheworksoflaterphilosopherssuchasMartinHeideggerandPaulRicoeur. Kantwasalsothefirsttosuggestusingadimensionalityapproachtohumandiversity.HeanalyzedthenatureoftheHippocrates-Galenfourtemperamentsandplottedthemintwodimensions:(1)"activation",orenergeticaspectofbehaviour,and(2)"orientationonemotionality".[160]Cholericsweredescribedasemotionalandenergetic;Phlegmaticsasbalancedandweak;Sanguinesasbalancedandenergetic,andMelancholicsasemotionalandweak.Thesetwodimensionsreappearedinallsubsequentmodelsoftemperamentandpersonalitytraits. Kantviewedanthropologyintwobroadcategories:(1)thephysiologicalapproach,whichhereferredtoas"whatnaturemakesofthehumanbeing";and(2)thepragmaticapproach,whichexploredthethingsthatahuman"canandshouldmakeofhimself."[161] Racism[edit] KantwasoneofthemostnotableEnlightenmentthinkerstodefendracism,andsomehaveclaimedthathewasoneofthecentralfiguresinthebirthofmodernscientificracism.WherefiguressuchasCarlLinnaeusandJohannFriedrichBlumenbachhadsupposedonly"empirical"observationforracism,Kantproducedafull-blowntheoryofrace.UsingtheFourTemperamentsofancientGreece,heproposedahierarchyoffourracialcategories:whiteEuropeans,yellowAsians,blackAfricans,andredAmerindians.[41][39][38][40][162][163] Kantwrotethat"[Whites]containalltheimpulsesofnatureinaffectsandpassions,alltalents,alldispositionstocultureandcivilizationandcanasreadilyobeyasgovern.Theyaretheonlyoneswhoalwaysadvancetoperfection.”HedescribesSouthAsiansas"educatedtothehighestdegreebutonlyintheartsandnotinthesciences".HegoesonthatHindustaniscanneverreachthelevelofabstractconceptsandthata"greathindustaniman"isonewhohas"gonefarintheartofdeceptionandhasmuchmoney".HestatedthattheHindusalwaysstaythewaytheyareandcanneveradvance.AboutblackAfricans,Kantwrotethat"theycanbeeducatedbutonlyasservants,thatistheyallowthemselvestobetrained".HequotesDavidHumeaschallenginganyoneto"citea[single]exampleinwhichaNegrohasshowntalents"andassertsthat,amongthe"hundredsofthousands"ofblackstransportedduringtheAtlanticslavetrade,evenamongthefreed"stillnotasingleonewaseverfoundwhopresentedanythinggreatinartorscienceoranyotherpraiseworthyquality".ToKant,"theNegrocanbedisciplinedandcultivated,butisnevergenuinelycivilized.Hefallsofhisownaccordintosavagery."NativeAmericans,Kantopined,"cannotbeeducated".Hecallsthemunmotivated,lackingaffect,passionandlove,describingthemastooweakforlabor,unfitforanyculture,andtoophlegmaticfordiligence.HesaidtheNativeAmericansare"farbelowtheNegro,whoundoubtedlyholdsthelowestofallremaininglevelsbywhichwedesignatethedifferentraces".Kantstatedthat"AmericansandBlackscannotgovernthemselves.Theythusserveonlyforslaves."[163][39][38][164] Kantwasanopponentofmiscegenation,believingthatwhiteswouldbe"degraded"andthe"fusingofraces"isundesireable,for"noteveryraceadoptsthemoralsandcustomsoftheEuropeans".Hestatedthat"insteadofassimilation,whichwasintendedbythemeltingtogetherofthevariousraces,Naturehasheremadealawofjusttheopposite".[165]Hebelievedthatinthefutureallraceswouldbeextinguished,exceptthatofthewhites.[163] CharlesW.MillswrotethatKanthasbeen"sanitizedforpublicconsumption",hisracistworksconvenientlyignored.[163]RobertBernasconistatedthatKant"suppliedthefirstscientificdefinitionofrace".EmmanuelChukwudiEzeiscreditedwithbringingKant'scontributionstoracismtolightinthe1990samongWesternphilosophers,whooftenglossoverthispartofhislifeandworks.[40]HewroteaboutKant'sideasofrace: Kant'spositionontheimportanceofskincolornotonlyasencodingbutasproofofthiscodificationofrationalsuperiorityorinferiorityisevidentinacommenthemadeonthesubjectofthereasoningcapacityofa"black"person.WhenheevaluatedastatementmadebyanAfrican,Kantdismissedthestatementwiththecomment:"thisfellowwasquiteblackfromheadtofoot,aclearproofthatwhathesaidwasstupid."Itcannot,therefore,bearguedthatskincolorforKantwasmerelyaphysicalcharacteristic.Itis,rather,evidenceofanunchangingandunchangeablemoralquality.— EmmanuelChukwudiEze,"TheColorofReason:TheIdeaof'Race'inKant'sAnthropology",PostcolonialAfricanPhilosophy:ACriticalReader(1997)[38] PaulineKleingeldarguesthatwhileKantwasindeedastaunchadvocateofscientificracismformuchofhiscareer,hisviewsonracechangedsignificantlyinworkspublishedinthelastdecadeofhislife.[42]Inparticular,shearguesthatKantunambiguouslyrejectedpastviewsrelatedtoracialhierarchiesandthediminishedrightsormoralstatusofnon-whitesinPerpetualPeace:APhilosophicalSketch(1795).ThisworkalsosawhimprovidingextendedargumentsagainstEuropeancolonialism,whichheclaimedwasmorallyunjustandincompatiblewiththeequalrightsheldbyindigenouspopulations.KleingeldarguesthatthisshiftinKant'sviewslaterinlifehasoftenbeenforgottenorignoredintheliteratureonKant'sracistanthropology,andthattheshiftsuggestsabelatedrecognitionofthefactthatracialhierarchywasincompatiblewithauniversalizedmoralframework.[42]WhileKant'sperspectiveonthetopicofEuropeancolonialismbecamemorebalanced,hestillconsideredEuropeans"civilized"totheexceptionofothers: Buttothisperfectioncomparetheinhospitableactionsofthecivilizedandespeciallyofthecommercialstatesofourpartoftheworld.Theinjusticewhichtheyshowtolandsandpeoplestheyvisit(whichisequivalenttoconqueringthem)iscarriedbythemtoterrifyinglengths.America,thelandsinhabitedbytheNegro,theSpiceIslands,theCape,etc.,wereatthetimeoftheirdiscoveryconsideredbythesecivilizedintrudersaslandswithoutowners,fortheycountedtheinhabitantsasnothing.InEastIndia(Hindustan),underthepretenseofestablishingeconomicundertakings,theybroughtinforeignsoldiersandusedthemtooppressthenatives,excitedwidespreadwarsamongthevariousstates,spreadfamine,rebellion,perfidy,andthewholelitanyofevilswhichafflictmankind.— ImmanuelKant,"PerpetualPeace:APhilosophicalSketch"(1795)[166] Influenceandlegacy[edit] Kant'sinfluenceonWesternthoughthasbeenprofound.[167]AlthoughthebasictenetsofKant'stranscendentalidealism(i.e.thatspaceandtimeareaprioriformsofhumanperceptionratherthanrealpropertiesandtheclaimthatformallogicandtranscendentallogiccoincide)havebeenclaimedtobefalsifiedbymodernscienceandlogic,[168][169][170]andnolongersettheintellectualagendaofcontemporaryphilosophers,Kantiscreditedwithhavinginnovatedthewayphilosophicalinquiryhasbeencarriedatleastuptotheearlynineteenthcentury.Thisshiftconsistedinseveralcloselyrelatedinnovationsthat,althoughhighlycontentiousinthemselves,havebecomeimportantinpostmodernphilosophyandinthesocialsciencesbroadlyconstrued: Thehumansubjectseenasthecentreofinquiryintohumanknowledge,suchthatitisimpossibletophilosophizeaboutthingsastheyexistindependentlyofhumanperceptionorofhowtheyareforus;[171] Thenotionthatispossibletodiscoverandsystematicallyexploretheinherentlimitstoourabilitytoknowentirelyapriori; Thenotionofthe"categoricalimperative",anassertionthatpeoplearenaturallyendowedwiththeabilityandobligationtowardrightreasonandacting.PerhapshismostfamousquoteisdrawnfromtheCritiqueofPracticalReason:"Twothingsfillmymindwithever-increasingwonderandawe... :thestarryheavensabovemeandthemorallawwithinme." Theconceptof"conditionsofpossibility",asinhisnotionof"theconditionsofpossibleexperience" –thatisthatthings,knowledge,andformsofconsciousnessrestonpriorconditionsthatmakethempossible,sothat,tounderstandortoknowthem,wemustfirstunderstandtheseconditions; Thetheorythatobjectiveexperienceisactivelyconstitutedorconstructedbythefunctioningofthehumanmind; Hisnotionofmoralautonomyascentraltohumanity; Hisassertionoftheprinciplethathumanbeingsshouldbetreatedasendsratherthanasmeans. Kant'sideashavebeenincorporatedintoavarietyofschoolsofthought.TheseincludeGermanidealism,Marxism,positivism,phenomenology,existentialism,criticaltheory,linguisticphilosophy,structuralism,post-structuralism,anddeconstructionism.[citationneeded] Historicalinfluence[edit] Thissectionneedsadditionalcitationsforverification.Pleasehelpimprovethisarticlebyaddingcitationstoreliablesources.Unsourcedmaterialmaybechallengedandremoved.(July2016)(Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) Duringhisownlife,muchcriticalattentionwaspaidtohisthought.HeinfluencedReinhold,Fichte,Schelling,HegelandNovalisduringthe1780sand1790s.TheschoolofthinkingknownasGermanidealismdevelopedfromhiswritings.TheGermanidealistsFichteandSchelling,forexample,triedtobringtraditional"metaphysically"ladennotionslike"theAbsolute","God",and"Being"intothescopeofKant'scriticalthought.[172]Insodoing,theGermanidealiststriedtoreverseKant'sviewthatwecannotknowwhatwecannotobserve. StatueofImmanuelKantinKaliningrad(Königsberg),Russia.ReplicabyHaraldHaacke [de]oftheoriginalbyChristianDanielRauchlostin1945. TheinfluentialEnglishRomanticpoetandaestheticphilosopherSamuelTaylorColeridgewasgreatlyinfluencedbyKantandhelpedtospreadawarenessofhim,andofGermanidealismgenerally,intheUKandtheUSA.InhisBiographiaLiteraria(1817),hecreditsKant'sideasincomingtobelievethatthemindisnotapassivebutanactiveagentintheapprehensionofreality. HegelwasoneofKant'sfirstmajorcritics.ThemainaccusationsHegelchargedKant'sphilosophywithwereformalism(or"abstractism")andirrationality.InHegel'sviewtheentireprojectofsettinga"transcendentalsubject"(i.ehumanconsciousness)apartfromnature,history,andsocietywasfundamentallyflawed,[173]althoughpartsofthatveryprojectcouldbeputtogooduseinanewdirection,thatHegelcalledthe"absoluteidealism".SimilarconcernsmovedHegel'scriticismstoKant'sconceptofmoralautonomy,towhichHegelopposedanethicfocusedonthe"ethicallife"ofthecommunity.[174]Inasense,Hegel'snotionof"ethicallife"ismeanttosubsume,ratherthanreplace,Kantianethics.AndHegelcanbeseenastryingtodefendKant'sideaoffreedomasgoingbeyondfinite"desires",bymeansofreason.Thus,incontrasttolatercriticslikeNietzscheorRussell,HegelsharessomeofKant'sconcerns.[175] Kant'sthinkingonreligionwasusedinBritaintochallengethedeclineinreligiousfaithinthenineteenthcentury.BritishCatholicwriters,notablyG.K.ChestertonandHilaireBelloc,followedthisapproach.RonaldEnglefielddebatedthismovement,andKant'suseoflanguage.[f]CriticismsofKantwerecommonintherealistviewsofthenewpositivismatthattime. ArthurSchopenhauerwasstronglyinfluencedbyKant'stranscendentalidealism.He,likeG.E.Schulze,JacobiandFichtebeforehim,wascriticalofKant'stheoryofthethinginitself.Thingsinthemselves,theyargued,areneitherthecauseofwhatweobservenoraretheycompletelybeyondouraccess.EversincethefirstCritiqueofPureReasonphilosophershavebeencriticalofKant'stheoryofthethinginitself.Manyhaveargued,ifsuchathingexistsbeyondexperiencethenonecannotpositthatitaffectsuscausally,sincethatwouldentailstretchingthecategory"causality"beyondtherealmofexperience.[g]ForSchopenhauerthingsinthemselvesdonotexistoutsidethenon-rationalwill.Theworld,asSchopenhauerwouldhaveit,isthestrivingandlargelyunconsciouswill.MichaelKelly,intheprefacetohis1910bookKant'sEthicsandSchopenhauer'sCriticism,stated:"OfKantitmaybesaidthatwhatisgoodandtrueinhisphilosophywouldhavebeenburiedwithhim,wereitnotforSchopenhauer...." WiththesuccessandwideinfluenceofHegel'swritings,Kant'sinfluencebegantowane,thoughtherewasinGermanyamovementthathailedareturntoKantinthe1860s,beginningwiththepublicationofKantunddieEpigonenin1865byOttoLiebmann.Hismottowas"BacktoKant",andare-examinationofhisideasbegan(seeNeo-Kantianism).Duringtheturnofthe20thcenturytherewasanimportantrevivalofKant'stheoreticalphilosophy,knownastheMarburgSchool,representedintheworkofHermannCohen,PaulNatorp,ErnstCassirer,[176]andanti-Neo-KantianNicolaiHartmann.[177] Kant'snotionof"Critique"hasbeenquiteinfluential.TheearlyGermanRomantics,especiallyFriedrichSchlegelinhis"AthenaeumFragments",usedKant'sself-reflexiveconceptionofcriticismintheirRomantictheoryofpoetry.[178]Alsoinaesthetics,ClementGreenberg,inhisclassicessay"ModernistPainting",usesKantiancriticism,whatGreenbergreferstoas"immanentcriticism",tojustifytheaimsofabstractpainting,amovementGreenbergsawasawareofthekeylimitation—flatness—thatmakesupthemediumofpainting.[179]FrenchphilosopherMichelFoucaultwasalsogreatlyinfluencedbyKant'snotionof"Critique"andwroteseveralpiecesonKantforare-thinkingoftheEnlightenmentasaformof"criticalthought".Hewentsofarastoclassifyhisownphilosophyasa"criticalhistoryofmodernity,rootedinKant".[180] Kantbelievedthatmathematicaltruthswereformsofsyntheticaprioriknowledge,whichmeanstheyarenecessaryanduniversal,yetknownthroughintuition.[181]Kant'softenbriefremarksaboutmathematicsinfluencedthemathematicalschoolknownasintuitionism,amovementinphilosophyofmathematicsopposedtoHilbert'sformalism,andFregeandBertrandRussell'slogicism.[182] Influenceonmodernthinkers[edit] WestGermanpostagestamp,1974,commemoratingthe250thanniversaryofKant'sbirth WithhisPerpetualPeace:APhilosophicalSketch,Kantisconsideredtohaveforeshadowedmanyoftheideasthathavecometoformthedemocraticpeacetheory,oneofthemaincontroversiesinpoliticalscience.[183] ProminentrecentKantiansincludetheBritishphilosophersP.F.Strawson,[184]OnoraO'Neill[185]andQuassimCassam,[186]andtheAmericanphilosophersWilfridSellars[187]andChristineKorsgaard.[188]DuetotheinfluenceofStrawsonandSellars,amongothers,therehasbeenarenewedinterestinKant'sviewofthemind.CentraltomanydebatesinphilosophyofpsychologyandcognitivescienceisKant'sconceptionoftheunityofconsciousness.[189] JürgenHabermasandJohnRawlsaretwosignificantpoliticalandmoralphilosopherswhoseworkisstronglyinfluencedbyKant'smoralphilosophy.[190]Theyarguedagainstrelativism,[191]supportingtheKantianviewthatuniversalityisessentialtoanyviablemoralphilosophy.Jean-FrançoisLyotard,however,emphasizedtheindeterminacyinthenatureofthoughtandlanguageandhasengagedindebateswithHabermasbasedontheeffectsthisindeterminacyhasonphilosophicalandpoliticaldebates.[192] MouZongsan'sstudyofKanthasbeencitedasahighlycrucialpartinthedevelopmentofMou'spersonalphilosophy,namelyNewConfucianism.WidelyregardedasthemostinfluentialKantscholarinChina,Mou'srigorouscritiqueofKant'sphilosophy—havingtranslatedallthreeofKant'scritiques—servedasanardentattempttoreconcileChineseandWesternphilosophywhilstincreasingpressuretowesternizeinChina.[193][194] Kant'sinfluencealsohasextendedtothesocial,behavioral,andphysicalsciences,asinthesociologyofMaxWeber,thepsychologyofJeanPiagetandCarlGustavJung,[195][196]andthelinguisticsofNoamChomsky.Kant'sworkonmathematicsandsyntheticaprioriknowledgeisalsocitedbytheoreticalphysicistAlbertEinsteinasanearlyinfluenceonhisintellectualdevelopment,butwhichhelatercriticisedheavilyandrejected.[197]Heheldtheviewthat"[I]fonedoesnotwanttoassertthatrelativitytheorygoesagainstreason,onecannotretaintheaprioriconceptsandnormsofKant'ssystem".[198]However,KantscholarStephenPalmquisthasarguedthatEinstein'srejectionofKant'sinfluencewasprimarily"aresponsetomistakeninterpretationsofKantbeingadoptedbycontemporaryphilosophers",wheninfactKant'stranscendentalperspectiveinformedEinstein'searlyworldviewandledtohisinsightsregardingsimultaneity,andeventuallytohisproposalofthetheoryofrelativity.[199]BecauseofthethoroughnessoftheKantianparadigmshift,hisinfluenceextendstothinkerswhoneitherspecificallyrefertohisworknorusehisterminology. Inrecentyears,therehasbeenrenewedinterestinKant'stheoryofmindfromthepointofviewofformallogicandcomputerscience.[200] Film/television[edit] KantandhisworkwasheavilyreferencedinthecomedytelevisionshowTheGoodPlace,astheshowdealswiththesubjectofethicsandmoralphilosophy.[201] Bibliography[edit] Listofmajorworks[edit] (1749)ThoughtsontheTrueEstimationofLivingForces(GedankenvonderwahrenSchätzungderlebendigenKräfte) (March1755)UniversalNaturalHistoryandTheoryoftheHeavens(AllgemeineNaturgeschichteundTheoriedesHimmels) (April1755)BriefOutlineofCertainMeditationsonFire(Meditationumquarundamdeignesuccintadelineatio(master'sthesisunderJohannGottfriedTeske))[202][203][204][205] (September1755)ANewElucidationoftheFirstPrinciplesofMetaphysicalCognition(Principiorumprimorumcognitionismetaphysicaenovadilucidatio(doctoralthesis))[206][207] (1756)TheUseinNaturalPhilosophyofMetaphysicsCombinedwithGeometry,PartI:PhysicalMonadology(Metaphysicaecumgeometricaiunctaeususinphilosophinnaturali,cuiusspecimenI.continetmonadologiamphysicam,abbreviatedasMonadologiaPhysica(thesisasaprerequisiteofassociateprofessorship))[208] (1762)TheFalseSubtletyoftheFourSyllogisticFigures(DiefalscheSpitzfindigkeitderviersyllogistischenFiguren) (1763)TheOnlyPossibleArgumentinSupportofaDemonstrationoftheExistenceofGod(DereinzigmöglicheBeweisgrundzueinerDemonstrationdesDaseinsGottes) (1763)AttempttoIntroducetheConceptofNegativeMagnitudesintoPhilosophy(VersuchdenBegriffdernegativenGrößenindieWeltweisheiteinzuführen) (1764)ObservationsontheFeelingoftheBeautifulandSublime(BeobachtungenüberdasGefühldesSchönenundErhabenen) (1764)EssayontheIllnessoftheHead(ÜberdieKrankheitdesKopfes) (1764)InquiryConcerningtheDistinctnessofthePrinciplesofNaturalTheologyandMorality(thePrizeEssay)(UntersuchungenüberdieDeutlichkeitderGrundsätzedernatürlichenTheologieundderMoral) (1766)DreamsofaSpirit-Seer(TräumeeinesGeistersehers)[209] (1768)OntheUltimateGroundoftheDifferentiationofRegionsinSpace(VondemerstenGrundedesUnterschiedesderGegendenimRaume)[210] (August1770)DissertationontheFormandPrinciplesoftheSensibleandtheIntelligibleWorld(Demundisensibilisatqueintelligibilisformaetprincipiis(doctoralthesis))[211][212][213][1] (1775)OntheDifferentRacesofMan(ÜberdieverschiedenenRassenderMenschen) (1781)FirsteditionoftheCritiqueofPureReason[214](KritikderreinenVernunft)[215] (1783)ProlegomenatoAnyFutureMetaphysics(ProlegomenazueinerjedenkünftigenMetaphysik) (1784)"AnAnswertotheQuestion:WhatIsEnlightenment?"("BeantwortungderFrage:WasistAufklärung?")[216] (1784)"IdeaforaUniversalHistorywithaCosmopolitanPurpose"("IdeezueinerallgemeinenGeschichteinweltbürgerlicherAbsicht") (1785)GroundworkoftheMetaphysicsofMorals(GrundlegungzurMetaphysikderSitten) (1786)MetaphysicalFoundationsofNaturalScience(MetaphysischeAnfangsgründederNaturwissenschaft) (1786)"Whatdoesitmeantoorientoneselfinthinking?"("Washeißt:sichimDenkenorientieren?") (1786)ConjecturalBeginningofHumanHistory(MutmaßlicherAnfangderMenschengeschichte) (1787)SecondeditionoftheCritiqueofPureReason[217](KritikderreinenVernunft)[218] (1788)CritiqueofPracticalReason(KritikderpraktischenVernunft)[219] (1790)CritiqueofJudgment(KritikderUrteilskraft)[220] (1793)ReligionwithintheBoundsofBareReason(DieReligioninnerhalbderGrenzenderbloßenVernunft)[89][221] (1793)OntheOldSaw:ThatMaybeRightinTheoryButItWon'tWorkinPractice(ÜberdenGemeinspruch:DasmaginderTheorierichtigsein,taugtabernichtfürdiePraxis) (1795)PerpetualPeace:APhilosophicalSketch[222]("ZumewigenFrieden")[223] (1797)MetaphysicsofMorals(MetaphysikderSitten).FirstpartisTheDoctrineofRight,whichhasoftenbeenpublishedseparatelyasTheScienceofRight. (1798)AnthropologyfromaPragmaticPointofView(AnthropologieinpragmatischerHinsicht) (1798)TheContestofFaculties[224](DerStreitderFakultäten)[225] (1800)Logic(Logik) (1803)OnPedagogy(ÜberPädagogik)[226] (1804)OpusPostumum (1817)LecturesonPhilosophicalTheology(ImmanuelKantsVorlesungenüberdiephilosophischeReligionslehreeditedbyK.H.L.Pölitz)[TheEnglisheditionofA.W.Wood&G.M.Clark(Cornell,1978)isbasedonPölitz'secondedition,1830,oftheselectures.][227] CollectedworksinGerman[edit] Printedversion WilhelmDiltheyinauguratedtheAcademyedition(theAkademie-AusgabeabbreviatedasAAorAk)ofKant'swritings(GesammelteSchriften,Königlich-PreußischeAkademiederWissenschaften,Berlin,1902–38)in1895,[228]andservedasitsfirsteditor.Thevolumesaregroupedintofoursections: I.Kant'spublishedwritings(vols.1–9), II.Kant'scorrespondence(vols.10–13), III.Kant'sliteraryremains,orNachlass(vols.14–23),and IV.StudentnotesfromKant'slectures(vols.24–29). Electronicversion ElektronischeEditionderGesammeltenWerkeImmanuelKants(vols.1–23). Seealso[edit] Philosophyportal Aenesidemus Agnosticism ArthurSchopenhauer'scriticismofImmanuelKant'sschemata CritiqueoftheKantianPhilosophy KantRussianStateUniversity Kant'sinfluenceonMouZongsan Kantianfallacy Listofliberaltheorists OntheBasisofMorality OnVisionandColors PoliticalphilosophyofImmanuelKant ImmanuelKant–Wikiquote Notes[edit] ^However,Kanthasalsobeeninterpretedasadefenderofthecoherencetheoryoftruth.[2] ^ab"Uptonowithasbeenassumedthatallourcognitionmustconformtotheobjects;butallattemptstofindoutsomethingaboutthemapriorithroughconceptsthatwouldextendourcognitionhave,onthispresupposition,cometonothing.Henceletusoncetrywhetherwedonotgetfartherwiththeproblemsofmetaphysicsbyassumingthattheobjectsmustconformtoourcognition,whichwouldagreebetterwiththerequestedpossibilityofanaprioricognitionofthem,whichistoestablishsomethingaboutobjectsbeforetheyaregiventous.ThiswouldbejustlikethefirstthoughtsofCopernicus,who,whenhedidnotmakegoodprogressintheexplanationofthecelestialmotionsifheassumedthattheentirecelestialhostrevolvesaroundtheobserver,triedtoseeifhemightnothavegreatersuccessifhemadetheobserverrevolveandleftthestarsatrest.Nowinmetaphysicswecantryinasimilarwayregardingtheintuitionofobjects.Ifintuitionhastoconformtotheconstitutionoftheobjects,thenIdonotseehowwecanknowanythingofthemapriori;butiftheobject(asanobjectofthesenses)conformstotheconstitutionofourfacultyofintuition,thenIcanverywellrepresentthispossibilitytomyself."[31]: 110(Bxvi–vii)  ^Nietzschewrotethat"Kantwantedtoprove,inawaythatwoulddumbfoundthecommonman,thatthecommonmanwasright:thatwasthesecretjokeofthissoul."[37] ^KanthimselfseemstohavefoundhiscontributionnotsignificantenoughthathepublishedhisargumentsinanewspapercommentaryontheprizequestionanddidnotsubmitthemtotheAcademy:"WhethertheEarthhasUndergoneanAlterationofitsAxialRotation".Kant'sCosmogony.TranslatedbyHastie,William.Glasgow:JamesMaclehose.1900[1754].pp. 1–11.Retrieved29March2022..Theprizewasinsteadawardedin1756toP.Frisi,whoincorrectlyarguedagainsttheslowingdownofthespin.[70] ^Ithasbeennotedthatin1778,inresponsetooneoftheseoffersbyaformerpupil,Kantwrote: Anychangemakesmeapprehensive,evenifitoffersthegreatestpromiseofimprovingmycondition,andIampersuadedbythisnaturalinstinctofminethatImusttakeheedifIwishthatthethreadswhichtheFatesspinsothinandweakinmycasetobespuntoanylength.Mygreatthanks,tomywell-wishersandfriends,whothinksokindlyofmeastoundertakemywelfare,butatthesametimeamosthumblerequesttoprotectmeinmycurrentconditionfromanydisturbance.[81] ^SeeEnglefield'sarticle"KantasDefenderoftheFaithinNineteenth-centuryEngland",Question,12,16–27(London,Pemberton)reprintedinCritiqueofPureVerbiage,EssaysonAbusesofLanguageinLiterary,Religious,andPhilosophicalWritings,editedbyG.A.WellsandD.R.Oppenheimer,OpenCourt,1990. ^ForareviewofthisproblemandtherelevantliteratureseeTheThinginItselfandtheProblemofAffectionintherevisededitionofHenryAllison'sKant'sTranscendentalIdealism. References[edit] ^abcSincehehadwrittenhislasthabilitationthesis14yearsearlier,anewhabilitationthesiswasrequired(seeS.J.McGrath,JosephCarew(eds.),RethinkingGermanIdealism,PalgraveMacmillan,2016,p.24). ^"TheCoherenceTheoryofTruth(StanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophy)".Archivedfromtheoriginalon1November2019.Retrieved29April2020. ^David,Marian."TheCorrespondenceTheoryofTruth".InZalta,EdwardN.(ed.).Archivedcopy.StanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophy(Fall2016 ed.).MetaphysicsResearchLab,StanfordUniversity.Archivedfromtheoriginalon14February2014.Retrieved18October2019.{{citeencyclopedia}}:CS1maint:archivedcopyastitle(link) ^Rockmore,Tom(2004).OnFoundationalism:AStrategyforMetaphysicalRealism.Rowman&Littlefield.pp. 65.ISBN 978-0-7425-3427-8. ^FrederickC.Beiser,GermanIdealism:TheStruggleAgainstSubjectivism,1781–1801,HarvardUniversityPress,2002,partI. ^Santos,Robinsondos;Schmidt,ElkeElisabeth(2017).RealismandAntirealisminKant'sMoralPhilosophy:NewEssays.WalterdeGruyterGmbH&CoKG.p. 199.ISBN 978-3-11-057451-7.Kantisanindirectrealist. ^Hanna,Robert,Kant,Science,andHumanNature.ClarendonPress,2006,p.16. ^Oberst,Michael(2015)."KantonUniversals".HistoryofPhilosophyQuarterly.32(4):335–352. ^Hanna,Robert(January2008)."Kantiannon-conceptualism".PhilosophicalStudies.137(1):41–64.doi:10.1007/s11098-007-9166-0.S2CID 170296391. ^Theapplicationoftheterm"perceptualnon-conceptualism"toKant'sphilosophyofperceptionisdebatable(seeHanna,Robert."TheTogethernessPrinciple,Kant'sConceptualism,andKant'sNon-Conceptualism:SupplementtoKant'sTheoryofJudgment".InZalta,EdwardN.(ed.).Kant'sTheoryofJudgment>theTogethernessPrinciple,Kant'sConceptualism,andKant'sNon-Conceptualism(StanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophy).StanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophy.Archivedfromtheoriginalon11June2018.Retrieved20August2018.). ^Biographies:KönigsbergProfessors–ManchesterUniversityArchived26December2016attheWaybackMachine:"Hislecturesonlogicandmetaphysicswerequitepopular,andhestilltaughttheology,philosophy,andmathematicswhenKantstudiedattheuniversity. TheonlytextbookfoundinKant'slibrarythatstemsfromhisstudentyearswasMarquardt'sbookonastronomy." ^KrVA51/B75–6.Seealso:EdwardWillatt,Kant,DeleuzeandArchitectonics,Continuum,2010p.17:"Kantarguesthatcognitioncanonlycomeaboutasaresultoftheunionoftheabstractworkoftheunderstandingandtheconcreteinputofsensation." ^Burnham,Douglas."ImmanuelKant:Aesthetics".InternetEncyclopediaofPhilosophy.Archivedfromtheoriginalon20February2018.Retrieved18October2019. ^KpV101–102(=AkV,121–22).Seealso:PaulSaurette,TheKantianImperative:Humiliation,CommonSense,Politics,UniversityofTorontoPress,2005,p.255n.32. ^Kuehn2001,p.251. ^I.Kant,TheoreticalPhilosophy:1755–1770,CambridgeUniversityPress,p.496 ^ImmanuelKant,PhilosophicalCorrespondence,1759–1799,UniversityofChicagoPress,1967,p.18. ^"Kant"Archived27September2019attheWaybackMachine.CollinsEnglishDictionary. ^"Kant"Archived23October2014attheWaybackMachine.RandomHouseWebster'sUnabridgedDictionary. ^Wells,JohnC.(2008).LongmanPronunciationDictionary(3rd ed.).Longman.ISBN 978-1-4058-8118-0. ^Jones,Daniel(2011).Roach,Peter;Setter,Jane;Esling,John(eds.).CambridgeEnglishPronouncingDictionary(18th ed.).CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-521-15255-6. ^"Immanuel".Duden(inGerman).Archivedfromtheoriginalon20December2020.Retrieved20October2018. ^"Kant".Duden(inGerman).Archivedfromtheoriginalon20October2018.Retrieved20October2018. ^abcMcCormick,Matt."ImmanuelKant:Metaphysics".InternetEncyclopediaofPhilosophy.Archivedfromtheoriginalon15February2019.Retrieved20February2019. ^abRohlf,Michael(2020),"ImmanuelKant",inZalta,EdwardN.(ed.),TheStanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophy(Spring2020 ed.),MetaphysicsResearchLab,StanfordUniversity,archivedfromtheoriginalon3September2020,retrieved27May2020 ^ab"ImmanuelKant|Biography,Philosophy,Books,&Facts".EncyclopediaBritannica.Archivedfromtheoriginalon16June2015.Retrieved27May2020. ^Durant,Will;Durant,Ariel(1967).TheStoryofCivilization:RousseauandRevolution.MJFBooks.pp. 571,574.ISBN 978-1-56731-021-4.Archivedfromtheoriginalon20December2020.Retrieved22August2020. ^NigelWarburton(2011)."Chapter19:Rose-tintedreality:ImmanuelKant".Alittlehistoryofphilosophy.YaleUniversityPress.p. 134.ISBN 978-0-300-15208-1. ^Kitcher,Patrica(1996)[Firsteditionoriginallypublishedin1781;secondeditionoriginallypublishedin1787]."IntroductionbyPatriciaKitcher,C.TheAnalyticofPrinciples".CritiqueofPureReason.ByKant,Immanuel.TranslatedbyPluhar,WernerS.(UnifiedEditionwithallvariantsfromthe1781and1787editions ed.).Indianapolis/Cambridge:HackettPublishingCompany,Inc.p. l.ISBN 0-87220-257-7.AlthoughHume'snameisnotmentionedineitherversionofthissection,fromthebeginning,Kant'sreadershaveunderstoodthathispurposewastovindicatethecausalconceptafterHume'sdevastatingattack[…]Kant's“replytoHume”wastoarguewecouldhavenocognitionofevents,ofobjectschangingbyacquiringorlosingaproperty,unlessweusedaconceptofcausationthatincludedboththeoffendingandrelatedpropertiesofuniversalityandnecessity. ^Therearetworelativelyrecenttranslations: Kant,Immanuel(1999).CritiqueofPureReason.TheCambridgeEditionoftheWorksofImmanuelKant.TranslatedbyGuyer,Paul;Wood,AllenW.Cambridge:CambridgeU.P.ISBN 978-0-5216-5729-7.Archivedfromtheoriginalon20December2020.Retrieved22August2020. Kant,Immanuel(1996).CritiqueofPureReason.TranslatedbyPluhar,WernerS.Indianapolis:Hackett.ISBN 978-0-87220-257-3. Bothtranslationshavetheirvirtuesandbotharebetterthanearliertranslations:McLaughlin,Peter(1999)."Review".Erkenntnis.51(2/3):357.doi:10.1023/a:1005483714722. PagereferencestotheCritiqueofPureReasonarecommonlygiventothefirst(1781)andsecond(1787)editions,aspublishedinthePrussianAcademyseries,asrespectively"A[pagenumber]"and"B[pagenumber]". ^abcdefghijkKant,Immanuel(1999).CritiqueofPureReason.TheCambridgeEditionoftheWorksofImmanuelKant.TranslatedandeditedbyPaulGuyerandAllenW.Wood.Cambridge:CambridgeU.P.ISBN 978-0-5216-5729-7. ^Vanzo,Alberto(January2013)."KantonEmpiricismandRationalism".HistoryofPhilosophyQuarterly.30(1):53–74.Archivedfromtheoriginalon20December2020.Retrieved17December2015. ^Rohlf,Michael."ImmanuelKant".InZalta,EdwardN.(ed.).StanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophy(Summer2018 ed.).MetaphysicsResearchLab,StanfordUniversity.Archivedfromtheoriginalon12January2012.Retrieved6October2015. ^Kant,Immanuel(1784)."IdeaforaUniversalHistorywithaCosmopolitanPurpose". ^ArthurSchopenhauer,OntheBasisofMorals,inTheTwoFundamentalProblemsofEthics,trans.ChrisJanaway(2009),sections4–5. ^FriedrichNietzsche,TheAnti-Christ(1895),para.10Archived3August2020attheWaybackMachine. ^FriedrichNietzsche(trans.WalterArnoldKaufmann),ThePortableNietzsche,1976,p.96. ^abcdEze,EmmanuelChukwudi(1997).PostcolonialAfricanPhilosophy:ACriticalReader.Wiley.pp. 103–131.ISBN 978-0-631-20339-1.Archivedfromtheoriginalon20December2020.Retrieved15June2020. ^abcEze,EmmanuelChukwudi(1997).RaceandtheEnlightenment:AReader.Wiley.pp. 39–48.ISBN 978-0-631-20136-6.Archivedfromtheoriginalon20December2020.Retrieved15June2020. ^abcBouie,Jamelle(5June2018)."HowtheEnlightenmentCreatedModernRaceThinkingandWhyWeShouldConfrontIt".SlateMagazine.Archivedfromtheoriginalon15June2020.Retrieved15June2020. ^abBernasconi,Robert(2010)."DefiningRaceScientifically:AresponsetoMichaelBanton".Ethnicities.10(1):141–148.doi:10.1177/14687968100100010802.ISSN 1468-7968.JSTOR 23890861.S2CID 143925406. ^abcKleingeld,Pauline(October2007)."Kant'sSecondThoughtsonRace"(PDF).ThePhilosophicalQuarterly.57(229):573–592.doi:10.1111/j.1467-9213.2007.498.x.hdl:11370/e15b6815-5eab-42d6-a789-24a2f6ecb946.S2CID 55185762.Archived(PDF)fromtheoriginalon16February2019.Retrieved14December2020. ^"Cosmopolis".Koenigsberg-is-dead.de.23April2001.Archivedfromtheoriginalon22March2009.Retrieved24July2009. ^Mortensen,HansandGertrud,KantsväterlicheAhnenundihreUmwelt,Redevon1952inJahrbuchderAlbertus-UniversitätzuKönigsberg,Pr.,Holzner-Verlag,Kitzingen,Main1953,Vol.3,p.26. ^R.K.Murray,"TheOriginofImmanuelKant'sFamilyName",KantianReview13(1),March2008,pp.190-93. ^RosaKohlheim,VolkerKohlheim,Duden–Familiennamen:HerkunftundBedeutungvon20.000Nachnamen,BibliographischesInstitut&F.A.BrockhausAG,Mannheim2005,p.365. ^Haupt,Viktor."RededesBohnenkönigs–VonPetersburgbisPanama–DieGenealogiederFamilieKant"(PDF).freunde-kants.com(inGerman).p. 7.Archivedfromtheoriginal(PDF)on25September2015. ^Kuehn2001,p.26. ^Pasternack,Lawrence;Fugate,Courtney(2020),"Kant'sPhilosophyofReligion",inZalta,EdwardN.(ed.),TheStanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophy(Spring2020 ed.),MetaphysicsResearchLab,StanfordUniversity,retrieved25February2021 ^Kuehn2001,p.47. ^Metaphysics,p.131 ^"ImmanuelKant".ChristianResearchInstitute.Archivedfromtheoriginalon20June2017.Retrieved15June2017. ^"Whilethissoundsskeptical,KantisonlyagnosticaboutourknowledgeofmetaphysicalobjectssuchasGod.And,asnotedabove,Kant'sagnosticismleadstotheconclusionthatwecanneitheraffirmnordenyclaimsmadebytraditionalmetaphysics."AndrewFiala,J.M.D.Meiklejohn,CritiqueofPureReason–Introduction,p.xi. ^ EdwardJ.Verstraete(2008)."ThePopularEncyclopediaofApologetics".InEdHindson;ErgunCaner(eds.).ThePopularEncyclopediaofApologetics:SurveyingtheEvidencefortheTruthofChristianity.HarvestHousePublishers.p. 82.ISBN 978-0-7369-2084-1.ItisinthissensethatmodernatheismrestsheavilyupontheskepticismofDavidHumeandtheagnosticismofImmanuelKant. ^ NormanL.Geisler;FrankTurek(2004)."Kant'sAgnosticism:ShouldWeBeAgnosticAboutIt?".IDon'tHaveEnoughFaithtoBeanAtheist.Crossway.pp. 59–60.ISBN 978-1-58134-561-2.ImmanuelKant'simpacthasbeenevenmoredevastatingtotheChristianworldviewthanDavidHume's.ForifKant'sphilosophyisright,thenthereisnowaytoknowanythingabouttherealworld,evenempiricallyverifiablethings! ^ GaryD.Badcock(1997).LightofTruthandFireofLove:ATheologyoftheHolySpirit.Wm.B.EerdmansPublishing.p. 113.ISBN 978-0-8028-4288-6.Kanthasnointerestinprayerorworship,andisinfactagnosticwhenitcomestosuchclassicaltheologicalquestionsasthedoctrineofGodoroftheHolySpirit. ^ NormanL.Geisler,PaulK.Hoffman,ed.(2006)."TheAgnosticismofImmanuelKant".WhyIAmaChristian:LeadingThinkersExplainWhyTheyBelieve.BakerBooks.p. 45.ISBN 978-0-8010-6712-9. ^ Flinn,FrankK.(2007).EncyclopediaofCatholicism.InfobasePublishing.p. 10.ISBN 978-0-8160-7565-2.FollowingLocke,theclassicagnosticclaimsnottoacceptmorepropositionsthanarewarrantedbyempiricalevidence.InthissenseanagnosticappealstoImmanuelKant(1724–1804),whoclaimsinhisCritiqueofPureReasonthatsinceGod,freedom,immortality,andthesoulcanbebothprovedanddisprovedbytheoreticalreason,weoughttosuspendjudgementaboutthem. ^Hare,JohnE.(1996).TheMoralGap:KantianEthics,HumanLimits,andGod'sAssistance.Oxford:ClarendonPress.p. 42.HarefurthersuggeststhatKantisnot,intheordinarysense,anagnosticaboutGod.Inhisview,Kantthinksthattherearegoodmoralgroundsfortheisticbelief.ApersonwhoalreadyunderstandstheclaimsofdutywillfindtheteachingsofChristianityworthyoflove,eventhoughtheyarenotobjectivelynecessary(p.47). ^Kuehn,M.(2001).Kant:Abiography.NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress.p169 ^"ImmanuelKant,JosephGreen,Robert". ^Vorländer,Karl(1924)."BeiPfarrerAnderschinJudtschen".ImmanuelKant:DerMannunddasWerk(inGerman).Archivedfromtheoriginalon18October2019.Retrieved18October2019. ^Vorländer,Karl(1924)."BeiMajorvonHülseninArnsdorf".ImmanuelKant:DerMannunddasWerk(inGerman).Archivedfromtheoriginalon1August2020.Retrieved18October2019. ^ Kant,Immanuel.ObservationsontheFeelingoftheBeautifulandSublime.Trans.JohnT.Goldthwait.UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1961,2003.ISBN 978-0-520-24078-0 ^TheAmericanInternationalEncyclopedia(NewYork:J.J.Little&Ives,1954),Vol.IX. ^Porter,Burton(2010).WhattheTortoiseTaughtUs:TheStoryofPhilosophy.Rowman&LittlefieldPublishers.p. 133. ^Kuehn2001,p.94. ^Kuehn2001,p.98. ^EricWatkins(ed.),ImmanuelKant:NaturalScience,CambridgeUniversityPress,2012:"Thoughtsonthetrueestimation..."Archived7March2016attheWaybackMachine. ^Schönfeld,Martin(2000).ThePhilosophyoftheYoungKant:ThePrecriticalProject.OxfordUniversityPress.p. 84.ISBN 978-0-19-513218-2. ^abBrush,StephenG.(2014).AHistoryofModernPlanetaryPhysics:NebulousEarth.p. 7.ISBN 978-0-521-44171-1. ^abRichards,Paul(1974)."Kant'sGeographyandMentalMaps".TransactionsoftheInstituteofBritishGeographers(61):1–16.doi:10.2307/621596.JSTOR 621596. ^Elden,Stuart(2009)."ReassessingKant'sgeography"(PDF).JournalofHistoricalGeography.35(1):3–25.doi:10.1016/j.jhg.2008.06.001.Archived(PDF)fromtheoriginalon1August2020.Retrieved27September2019. ^Gamow,George(1947).OneTwoThree...Infinity.NewYork:VikingP.pp. 300ff. ^"AddressofthePresidentoftheGeologicalSociety1869".mathcs.clarku.edu.Retrieved11May2022. ^abGulyga,Arsenij.ImmanuelKant:HisLifeandThought.Trans.,MarijanDespaltović.Boston:Birkhäuser,1987,p.62. ^Cf.,forexample,SusanShell,TheEmbodimentofReason(Chicago,1996) ^Kuehn,Manfred(2009).Kant'sCritiqueofPureReason:BackgroundSourceMaterials.Cambridge,UK:CambridgeUniversityPress.p. 276.ISBN 978-0-521-78162-6. ^abcSmith,HomerW.(1952).ManandHisGods.NewYork:Grosset&Dunlap.p. 404. ^ImmanuelKant,ProlegomenatoAnyFutureMetaphysics,p.57(Ak.4:260) ^ChristopherKul-WantandAndrzejKlimowski,IntroducingKant(Cambridge:IconBooks,2005).[page needed]ISBN 978-1-84046-664-5 ^Smith,HomerW.(1952).ManandHisGods.NewYork:Grosset&Dunlap.p. 416. ^Dorrien,Gary(2012).KantianReasonandHegelianSpirit:TheIdealisticLogicofModernTheology.Malden,MA:JohnWiley&Sons.p. 37.ISBN 978-0-470-67331-7. ^Copleston,FrederickCharles(2003).TheEnlightenment:VoltairetoKant.p.146. ^Sassen,Brigitte.Kant'sEarlyCritics:TheEmpiricistCritiqueoftheTheoreticalPhilosophy.2000. ^EinJahrhundertdeutscherLiteraturkritik,vol.III,DerAufstiegzurKlassikinderKritikderZeit(Berlin,1959),p.315;asquotedinGulyga,Arsenij.ImmanuelKant:HisLifeandThought.Trans.,MarijanDespaltović.Boston:Birkhäuser,1987. ^Gulyga,Arsenij.ImmanuelKant:HisLifeandThought.Trans.,MarijanDespaltović.Boston:Birkhäuser,1987pp.28–29. ^Guyer,Paul(2006).TheCambridgeCompaniontoKantandModernPhilosophy.Cambridge,UK:CambridgeUniversityPress.p. 631.ISBN 978-0-521-82303-6. ^abcWernerS.Pluhar,ReligionwithintheBoundsofBareReasonArchived4March2020attheWaybackMachine.2009.DescriptionArchived1February2020attheWaybackMachine&Contents.WithanIntroductionArchived3August2020attheWaybackMachinebyStephenPalmquist.Indianapolis:HackettPublishingCompany, ^abcdeDerrida,VacantChairp.44. ^"OpenletterbyKantdenouncingFichte'sPhilosophy".Korpora.org(inGerman).Archivedfromtheoriginalon19July2011.Retrieved24July2009. ^Peirce,C.S.,CollectedPapersofCharlesSandersPeirce,v.1,(HUP,1960),'KantandhisRefutationofIdealism'p.15 ^Kant,Immanuel,Logic,G.B.Jäsche(ed),R.S.Hartman,W.Schwarz(translators),Indianapolis,1984,p.xv. ^KarlVorländer,ImmanuelKant:DerMannunddasWerk,Hamburg:Meiner,1992,p.II332. ^"HeineonImmanuelKant"(PDF).Archived(PDF)fromtheoriginalon23November2015.Retrieved10July2015. ^ExaminedLives,FromSocratestoNietzsche,JamesMillerp.284 ^ImmanuelKantandtheBo(a)rdersofArtHistoryMarkCheetham,inTheSubjectsofArtHistory:HistoricalObjectsinContemporaryPerspectives,p.16 ^Beyer,Susanne(25July2014)."ResurrectingKönigsberg:RussianCityLookstoGermanRoots".SpiegelOnline.Archivedfromtheoriginalon4February2018.Retrieved3February2018. ^"ExecutiveorderonestablishingImmanuelKantUniversity". ^Kishkovsky,Sophia(28November2018)."KantmonumentsplashedwithpinkpaintinKaliningrad".TheArtNewspaper.Archivedfromtheoriginalon4December2018.Retrieved3December2018. ^TheScienceofRight,Conclusion. ^InthefirsteditionoftheCritiqueofPureReasonKantreferstospaceas"nodiscursiveor...generalconceptionoftherelationofthings,butapureintuition"andmaintainedthat"Wecanonlyrepresenttoourselvesonespace".The"generalnotionofspaces...dependssolelyuponlimitations"(Meikeljohntrans.,A25).InthesecondeditionoftheCPR,Kantadds,"Theoriginalrepresentationofspaceisanaprioriintuition,notaconcept"(KempSmithtrans.,B40).Inregardtotime,Kantstatesthat"Timeisnotadiscursive,orwhatiscalledageneralconcept,butapureformofsensibleintuition.Differenttimesarebutpartsofoneandthesametime;andtherepresentationwhichcanbegivenonlythroughasingleobjectisintuition"(A31/B47).Forthedifferencesinthediscursiveuseofreasonaccordingtoconceptsanditsintuitiveusethroughtheconstructionofconcepts,seeCritiqueofPureReason(A719/B747ff.andA837/B865).On"Oneandthesamethinginspaceandtime"andthemathematicalconstructionofconcepts,seeA724/B752. ^"Archivedcopy".Archivedfromtheoriginalon14November2019.Retrieved29May2019.{{citeweb}}:CS1maint:archivedcopyastitle(link) ^"Kant,ImmanueldefinitionofKant,ImmanuelintheFreeOnlineEncyclopedia".Encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com.Archivedfromtheoriginalon2March2014.Retrieved26February2014. ^Kant,Immanuel.ProlegomenatoAnyFutureMetaphysics.§2.Archivedfromtheoriginalon1August2020.Retrieved22March2020. ^TheGermanwordAnschauung,whichKantused,literallymeans'lookingat'andgenerallymeanswhatinphilosophyinEnglishiscalled"perception".Howeveritsometimesisrenderedas"intuition":not,however,withthevernacularmeaningofanindescribableormysticalexperienceorsixthsense,butratherwiththemeaningofthedirectperceptionorgraspingofsensoryphenomena.Inthisarticle,bothterms,"perception"and"intuition"areusedtostandforKant'sAnschauung. ^abcdefghImmanuelKant,ProlegomenatoAnyFutureMetaphysics,pp.35–43. ^DeleuzeonKantArchived14November2007attheWaybackMachine,fromwherethedefinitionsofaprioriandaposterioriwereobtained. ^ImmanuelKant,CritiqueofJudgment,theIntroductiontotheHackettedition. ^Balanovskiy,Valentin(2018)."WhatisKant'sTranscendentalReflection?".ProceedingsoftheXXIIIWorldCongressofPhilosophy.75:17–27.doi:10.5840/wcp232018751730.ISBN 978-1-63435-038-9.Archivedfromtheoriginalon20December2020.Retrieved29May2020. ^ThedistinctionbetweenrationalandphilosophicalknowledgeisgiveninthePrefacetotheGroundwork,1785. ^Kant,Foundations,p.421. ^Kant,Foundations,p.408. ^Kant,Foundations,pp.420–421. ^abcdKant,Foundations,p.436. ^Kant,Immanuel(1993)[1785].GroundingfortheMetaphysicsofMorals.TranslatedbyEllington,JamesW.(3rd ed.).Hackett.p. 30.ISBN 978-0-87220-166-8..ItisstandardtoalsoreferencetheAkademieAusgabeofKant'sworks.TheGroundworkoccursinthefourthvolume.Theabovecitationistakenfrom4:421. ^MillenniumEcosystemAssessment(2003)EcosystemsandWell-being:AFrameworkforAssessment.Washington,DC:IslandPress,p.142. ^"PerpetualPeace:APhilosophicalSketch:Appendix1".Constitution.org.Archivedfromtheoriginalon2May2009.Retrieved24July2009. ^Kant,Immanuel(1796).ProjectforaPerpetualPeace,p.61.Archivedfromtheoriginalon20December2020.Retrieved24July2009. ^Kant,Immanuel(1838).Hartenstein,G.(ed.).ImmanuelKant'sWerke,revidirteGesammtausg(inGerman).p. 456.Retrieved24July2009.pereatmundusKant. ^Kant,Foundations,p.437. ^"KantandtheGermanEnlightenment"in"HistoryofEthics".EncyclopediaofPhilosophy,Vol.3,pp.95–96.MacMillan,1973. ^Kant,Foundations,pp.400,429. ^Kant,Foundations,pp.437–38. ^Kant,Foundations,pp.438–439.SeealsoKingdomofEnds ^KarlLeonhardReinhold,LettersontheKantianPhilosophy(1786),3rdLetter ^JohannSchultz,ExpositionofKant'sCritiqueofPureReason(1784),141. ^"TheProtestantpastoristhegrandfatherofGermanphilosophy...Germanphilosophyisatbottom—acunningtheology...WhytherejoicingheardthroughtheGermanacademicworld—three-quarterscomposedofthesonsofpastorsandteachers-attheappearanceofKant?WhytheGermans'conviction,whichstillfindechoeventoday,thatwithKantthingsweretakingaturnofthebetter?Kant'ssuccessismerelyatheologian'ssuccess".Nietzsche,TheAntichrist,10 ^abImmanuelKant.ReligionwithintheLimitsofReasonAlone(1793),BookIV,Part1,Section1,"TheChristianreligionasanaturalreligion." ^Pasternack,Lawrence;Rossi,Philip."Kant'sPhilosophyofReligion".InZalta,EdwardN.(ed.).StanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophy(Fall2014 ed.).MetaphysicsResearchLab,StanfordUniversity.Archivedfromtheoriginalon9July2010.Retrieved18October2019. ^ForexamplePeterByrne,whowroteaboutKant'srelationshipwithdeism.Byrne,Peter(2007),KantonGod,London:Ashgate,p.159. ^Wood,AllenW.(1970),Kant'smoralreligion,LondonandIthaca:CornellUniversityPress,p.16. ^Westphal,Merold(2010),TheEmergeofModernPhilosophyofReligion,inTaliaferro,Charles,Draper,PaulandQuinn,Philip(editors),ACompaniontoPhilosophyofReligion,Oxford:Blackwell,p.135. ^Iţu,Mircia(2004),DumnezeuşireligiaînconcepţialuiImmanuelKantdinReligiaînlimiteleraţiunii,inBoboc,AlexandruandMariş,N.I.(editors),Studiideistoriafilosofieiuniversale,volume12,Bucharest:RomanianAcademy. ^Wood,AllenW.(2020),KantandReligion,CambridgeUniversityPress,p.2. ^Seee.g.,LawrencePasternack,RoutledgePhilosophyGuidebooktoKantonReligionwithintheBoundariesofMereReason(NewYork,Routledge,2014),pp.239-240. ^Palmquist,Stephen(1992),"DoesKantReduceReligiontoMorality?",Kant-Studien83.2,pp.129–148. ^TheconceptoffreedomisalsohandledinthethirdsectionoftheFoundationsoftheMetaphysicsofMorals;intheCritiqueofPracticalReasonsee§VIIand§VIII. ^5:65–67 ^SusanneBobzien,'DieKategorienderFreiheitbeiKant',inKant:Analysen,Probleme,KritikVol.1,1988,193–220. ^CritiqueofJudgmentin"Kant,Immanuel"EncyclopediaofPhilosophy.Vol4.Macmillan,1973. ^Kant,CritiqueofPureReason,A22/B36. ^Beardsley,Monroe."HistoryofAesthetics".EncyclopediaofPhilosophy.Vol.1,sectionon"Towardaunifiedaesthetics",p.25,Macmillan1973.Baumgartencoinedtheterm"aesthetics"andexpanded,clarified,andunifiedWolffianaesthetictheory,buthadlefttheAestheticaunfinished(Seealso:Tonelli,Giorgio."AlexanderGottliebBaumgarten".EncyclopediaofPhilosophy.Vol.1,Macmillan1973).InBernard'stranslationoftheCritiqueofJudgmentheindicatesinthenotesthatKant'sreferencein§15inregardtotheidentificationofperfectionandbeautyisprobablyareferencetoBaumgarten. ^GermanIdealismin"HistoryofAesthetics"EncyclopediaofPhilosophy.Vol1.Macmillan,1973. ^Kant'sgeneraldiscussionsofthedistinctionbetween"cognition"and"consciousof"arealsogivenintheCritiqueofPureReason(notablyA320/B376),andsectionVandtheconclusionofsectionVIIIofhisIntroductioninLogic. ^Clewis,Robert(2009)."TheKantianSublimeandtheRevelationofFreedom".Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.Archivedfromtheoriginalon20October2012.Retrieved8December2011. ^Jakobidze-Gitman,Alexander(2020)."Kant'sSituatedApproachtoMusickingandJoking".JournalofInterdisciplinaryMusicStudies.10:17–33.doi:10.25364/24.10:2020.2. ^Clewis,Robert(2020).Kant'sHumorousWritings:AnIllustratedGuide.London:Bloomsbury.ISBN 978-1-350-11279-7. ^Kant,Immanuel.IdeaforaUniversalHistory.Trans.LewisWhiteBeck(20,22). ^Kant,Immanuel.IdeaforaUniversalHistory.Trans.LewisWhiteBeck(26). ^Kant,Immanuel.PerpetualPeace:APhilosophicalSketchArchived6April2019attheWaybackMachine(1795) ^Kant,Immanuel.PerpetualPeace.Trans.LewisWhiteBeck(377). ^ManfredRiedelBetweenTraditionandRevolution:TheHegelianTransformationofPoliticalPhilosophy,Cambridge1984 ^OnHistory,(ed.L.W.Beck,NewYork:BobbsMerill,1963,p.106). ^HistoryofPoliticalPhilosophy,editedbyLeoStraussandJosephCropsey,TheUniversityofChicagoPress,1987,pp.581–582,603 ^Kant,Immanuel.PerpetualPeace.Trans.LewisWhiteBeck(352). ^Wilson,Holly(2006).Kant'sPragmaticAnthropology.Albany:StateUniversityofNewYorkPress.p. 7.ISBN 978-0-7914-6849-4. ^ThomasSturm,KantunddieWissenschaftenvomMenschen(Paderborn:MentisVerlag,2009). ^AnthropologyfromaPragmaticPointofView,ed.RobertB.Louden,introductionbyManfredKuehn,CambridgeUniversityPress,2006 ^Kant,I.(1798).Anthropologyfromapragmaticpointofview.trans.MaryGregor).TheHague:MartinusNijhoff,1974(VII). ^Gregor,Brian."AnthropologyfromaPragmaticPointofView.ByImmanuelKant.TranslatedandeditedbyRobertB.Louden".Heythrop.{{citejournal}}:Citejournalrequires|journal=(help) ^Kant,Immanuel."KantontheDifferentRacesofMan"(PDF).UMassAmherst.Archived(PDF)fromtheoriginalon1August2020.Retrieved15June2020. ^abcdMills,CharlesW.(2017).BlackRights/WhiteWrongs:TheCritiqueofRacialLiberalism.OxfordUniversityPress.pp. 169–193.doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190245412.001.0001.ISBN 978-0-19-024545-0.Archivedfromtheoriginalon16June2020.Retrieved15June2020. ^"Kantonthedifferenthumanraces(1777)".BlackCentralEurope.4February2016.Archivedfromtheoriginalon16June2020.Retrieved16June2020. ^Kant,Immanuel(1798).AnthropologyfromaPragmaticPointofView.p. 236. ^"ImmanuelKant,"PerpetualPeace"".www.mtholyoke.edu.Retrieved3March2021. ^Prof.OliverA.Johnsonclaimsthat,"WiththepossibleexceptionofPlato'sRepublic,(CritiqueofPureReason)isthemostimportantphilosophicalbookeverwritten."ArticleonKantwithinthecollection"GreatthinkersoftheWesternWorld",IanP.McGreal,Ed.,HarperCollins,1992. ^Strawson,Peter.BoundsofSense:EssayonKant's"CritiqueofPureReason".ASIN 0415040302. ^"EinsteinonKant".www.pitt.edu.Archivedfromtheoriginalon9August2020.Retrieved2September2020. ^Perrick,Michael(1985)."KantandKripkeonNecessaryEmpiricalTruths".Mind.94(376):596–598.doi:10.1093/mind/XCIV.376.596.ISSN 0026-4423.JSTOR 2254731. ^SeeStephenPalmquist,"TheArchitectonicFormofKant'sCopernicanLogic",Metaphilosophy17:4(October1986),pp.266–288;revisedandreprintedasChapterIIIofKant'sSystemofPerspectivesArchived14April2012attheWaybackMachine:AnarchitectonicinterpretationoftheCriticalphilosophy(Lanham:UniversityPressofAmerica,1993). ^ThereismuchdebateintherecentscholarshipabouttheextenttowhichFichteandSchellingactuallyoversteptheboundariesofKant'scriticalphilosophy,thusenteringtherealmofdogmaticorpre-Criticalphilosophy.Beiser'sGermanIdealismdiscussessomeoftheseissues.Beiser,FrederickC.GermanIdealism:TheStruggleagainstSubjectivism,1781–1801.Cambridge,Massachusetts:HarvardUniversityPress,2002. ^Hegel,GeorgWilhelmFriedrich(1827).EncyclopediaofthePhilosophicalSciencesinBasicOutline.Heidelberg.pp. 14–15. ^GeorgWilhelmFriedrichHegel,NaturalLaw:TheScientificWaysofTreatingNaturalLaw,ItsPlaceinMoralPhilosophy,andItsRelationtothePositiveSciences.trans.T.M.Knox.Philadelphia,PA:UniversityofPennsylvaniaPress,1975.Hegel'smatureviewandhisconceptof"ethicallife"iselaboratedinhisPhilosophyofRight.Hegel,PhilosophyofRight.trans.T.M.Knox.OxfordUniversityPress,1967. ^RobertPippin'sHegel'sIdealism(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1989)emphasizesthecontinuityofHegel'sconcernswithKant's.RobertWallace,Hegel'sPhilosophyofReality,Freedom,andGod(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2005)explainshowHegel'sScienceofLogicdefendsKant'sideaoffreedomasgoingbeyondfinite"inclinations",contraskepticssuchasDavidHume. ^Beck,LewisWhite."Neo-Kantianism".InEncyclopediaofPhilosophy.Vol.5–6.Macmillan,1973.ArticleonNeo-KantianismbyatranslatorandscholarofKant. ^Cerf,Walter."NicolaiHartmann".InEncyclopediaofPhilosophy.Vol.3–4.Macmillan,1973.NicolaiwasarealistwholaterrejectedtheidealismofNeo-Kantianism,hisanti-Neo-KantianviewsemergingwiththepublicationofthesecondvolumeofHegel(1929). ^Schlegel,Friedrich."AthenaeumFragments",inPhilosophicalFragments.Trans.PeterFirchow.Minneapolis,MN:UniversityofMinnesotaPress,1991.SeeespeciallyfragmentsNos.1,43,44. ^Greenberg,Clement."ModernistPainting",inThePhilosophyofArt,ed.AlexNeillandAaronRidley,McGraw-Hill,1995. ^See"EssentialWorksofFoucault:1954–1984vol.2:Aesthetics,Method,andEpistemology."Ed.byJamesFaubion,Trans.RobertHurleyetal.NewYorkCity:TheNewPress,1998(2010reprint).See"Foucault,Michel,1926–"entrybyMauriceFlorence. ^Foradiscussionandqualifieddefenseofthisposition,seeStephenPalmquist,"APrioriKnowledgeinPerspective:(I)Mathematics,MethodandPureIntuition",TheReviewofMetaphysics41:1(September1987),pp.3–22. ^Körner,Stephan,ThePhilosophyofMathematics,Dover,1986.ForananalysisofKant'swritingsonmathematicssee,Friedman,Michael,KantandtheExactSciences,Cambridge,Massachusetts:HarvardUniversityPress,1992. ^Ray,JamesLee(1998)."DoesDemocracyCausePeace?".AnnualReviewofPoliticalScience.1:27–46.doi:10.1146/annurev.polisci.1.1.27.Archivedfromtheoriginalon17February2008. ^Strawson,P.F.,TheBoundsofSense:AnEssayonKant'sCritiqueofPureReason.Routledge:2004.Whenfirstpublishedin1966,thisbookforcedmanyAnglo-AmericanphilosopherstoreconsiderKant'sCritiqueofPureReason. ^Aridi,Sara(14March2017)."OnoraO'NeillWinsHolbergPrizeforAcademicResearch".TheNewYorkTimes.Archivedfromtheoriginalon9January2019.Retrieved9January2019. ^Cassam,Q.,"ThePossibilityofKnowledge"Oxford:2009 ^Sellars,Wilfrid,ScienceandMetaphysics:VariationsonKantianThemes.RidgeviewPublishingCompany,1967 ^Korsgaard,Christine.CreatingtheKingdomofEnds.Cambridge;NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress,1996.ISBN 978-0-521-49644-5Notacommentary,butadefenseofabroadlyKantianapproachtoethics ^Brook,Andrew.KantandtheMind.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1994.Seealso,Meerbote,R."Kant'sFunctionalism".In:J.C.Smith,ed.HistoricalFoundationsofCognitiveScience.Dordrecht,Holland:Reidel,1991.BrookhasanarticleonKant'sViewoftheMindintheStanfordEncyclopediaArchived9July2010attheWaybackMachine ^SeeHabermas,J.MoralConsciousnessandCommunicativeAction.Trans.ChristianLenhardtandShierryWeberNicholsen.Cambridge,Massachusetts:MITPress,1996.ForRawlssee,Rawls,John.TheoryofJusticeCambridge,Massachusetts:HarvardUniversityPress,1971.Rawlshasawell-knownessayonKant'sconceptofgood.See,Rawls,"ThemesinKant'sMoralPhilosophy"inKant'sTranscendentalDeductions.Ed.EckartFörster.Stanford,CA:StanfordUniversityPress,1989. ^Habermas,J.(1994):TheUnityofReasonintheDiversityofItsVoices.In:Habermas,J.(Eds.):PostmetaphysicalThinking.PoliticalEssays,Cambridge,Massachusetts:115–148. ^Rorty,R.(2984)HabermasandLyotardonpostmodernity.PraxisInternational(32–44) ^Palmquist,Stephen(19November2010).CultivatingPersonhood:KantandAsianPhilosophy(1st ed.).HongKong:DeGruyter,Inc.pp. 25.ISBN 978-3-11-022624-9. ^Wing‐Cheuk,Chan(21February2006)."MouZongsan'sTransformationofKant'sPhilosophy".JournalofChinesePhilosophy.33(1):1.doi:10.1111/j.1540-6253.2006.00340.x. ^Balanovskiy,Valentin(2016)."Whetherjungwasakantian?".Con-TextosKantianos(4):118–126.doi:10.5281/zenodo.2550828.Archivedfromtheoriginalon20December2020.Retrieved29May2020. ^Balanovskiy,Valentin(2017)."KantandJungontheprospectsofScientificPsychology".EstudosKantianos.5(1):357–390.doi:10.36311/2318-0501.2017.v5n1.26.p375.Archivedfromtheoriginalon20December2020.Retrieved29May2020. ^Issacson,Walter."Einstein:HisLifeandUniverse."p.20. ^"EinsteinonKant".www.pitt.edu.Retrieved13March2021. ^Palmquist,S.(2010),"TheKantiangroundingofEinstein'sworldview:(I)TheearlyinfluenceofKant'ssystemofperspectives",PolishJournalofPhilosophy,4(1),45–64. ^TheodoraAchourioti&MichielvanLambalgen,'AFormalizationofKant'sTranscendentalLogic',TheReviewofSymbolicLogic,4(2011),254–289. ^Wansbrough,Aleks."Kantiancomedy:thephilosophyofTheGoodPlace".TheConversation.Retrieved20February2022. ^Thethesiswassubmittedon17April1755."Thepublicexaminationwasheldfourweekslateron13May,andthedegreewasformallyawardedon12June"(EricWatkins,Kant:NaturalScience,CambridgeUniversityPress,2012,p.309). ^EricWatkins(ed.),KantandtheSciences,OxfordUniversityPress,2001,p.27. ^MartinSchonfeld,ThePhilosophyoftheYoungKant:ThePrecriticalProject,OxfordUniversityPress,2000,p.74. ^AvailableonlineatBonnerKant-KorpusArchived6March2016attheWaybackMachine. ^Thethesiswaspubliclydisputedon27September1755(Kuehn2001,p.100). ^AvailableonlineatBonnerKant-KorpusArchived6March2016attheWaybackMachine. ^Kant'sapplicationforthepositionwasunsuccessful.Hedefendediton10April1756(Kuehn2001,p.102). ^AvailableonlineatArchive.org. ^ImmanuelKant,"Concerningtheultimategroundofthedifferentiationofdirectionsinspace"Archived16July2018attheWaybackMachine. ^Thethesiswaspubliclydisputedon21August1770(Kuehn2001,p.189). ^AvailableonlineatGoogleBooksArchived3August2020attheWaybackMachine. ^EnglishtranslationavailableonlineatWikisource. ^ImmanuelKant."TheCritiqueofPureReason".Etext.library.adelaide.edu.au.Archivedfromtheoriginalon2December2008.Retrieved24July2009. ^ImmanuelKant."ImmanuelKant:KritikderreinenVernunft–1.Auflage–Kapitel1"(inGerman).ProjektGutenberg-DE.Archivedfromtheoriginalon9June2007.Retrieved24July2009. ^Frank-ChristianLilienweihs(10June1999)."ImmanuelKant:BeantwortungderFrage:WasistAufklaerung?".Prometheusonline.de.Archivedfromtheoriginalon1August2009.Retrieved24July2009. ^"CritiqueofPureReason".Hkbu.edu.hk.31October2003.Archivedfromtheoriginalon27April2009.Retrieved24July2009. ^"ImmanuelKant:KritikderreinenVernunft–2.Auflage–Kapitel1"(inGerman).ProjektGutenberg-DE.20July2009.Archivedfromtheoriginalon26December2005.Retrieved24July2009. ^ImmanuelKant."ImmanuelKant:KritikderpraktischenVernunft–Kapitel1"(inGerman).ProjektGutenberg-DE.Archivedfromtheoriginalon9June2007.Retrieved24July2009. ^s:TheCritiqueofJudgment ^ImmanuelKant."ReligionwithintheLimitsofReasonAlonebyImmanuelKant1793".Marxists.org.Archivedfromtheoriginalon1June2009.Retrieved24July2009. ^"ImmanuelKant,"PerpetualPeace"".Mtholyoke.edu.Archivedfromtheoriginalon6April2019.Retrieved24July2009. ^"ImmanuelKant:ZumewigenFrieden,12.02.2004(Friedensratschlag)".Uni-kassel.de.Archivedfromtheoriginalon23September2009.Retrieved24July2009. ^"Kant,TheContestofFaculties".Chnm.gmu.edu.1798.Archivedfromtheoriginalon4August2011.Retrieved24July2009. ^ImmanuelKant."ImmanuelKant:DerStreitderFacultäten–Kapitel1"(inGerman).ProjektGutenberg-DE.Archivedfromtheoriginalon9June2007.Retrieved24July2009. ^AvailableonlineatDeutschesTextArchiv.deArchived10March2016attheWaybackMachine. ^AsnotedbyAllenW.WoodinhisIntroduction,p.12.WoodfurtherspeculatesthatthelecturesthemselvesweredeliveredintheWinterof1783–84. ^ImmanuelKant,NotesandFragments,CambridgeUniversityPress,2005,p.xvi. Workscited[edit] Kant,Immanuel.FoundationsoftheMetaphysicsofMorals.Trans.LewisWhiteBeck,Indianapolis,Bobbs-Merrill,1969.PagenumberscitingthisworkareBeck'smarginalnumbersthatrefertothepagenumbersofthestandardeditionofKöniglich-PreußischeAkademiederWissenschaften(Berlin,1902–38). Kuehn,Manfred.Kant:aBiography.CambridgeUniversityPress,2001.ISBN 978-0-521-49704-6. Furtherreading[edit] ThisfurtherreadingsectionmaycontaininappropriateorexcessivesuggestionsthatmaynotfollowWikipedia'sguidelines.Pleaseensurethatonlyareasonablenumberofbalanced,topical,reliable,andnotablefurtherreadingsuggestionsaregiven;removinglessrelevantorredundantpublicationswiththesamepointofviewwhereappropriate.Considerutilisingappropriatetextsasinlinesourcesorcreatingaseparatebibliographyarticle.(February2017)(Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) InGermany,oneimportantcontemporaryinterpreterofKantandthemovementofGermanIdealismhebeganisDieterHenrich,whohassomeworkavailableinEnglish.P.F.Strawson'sTheBoundsofSense(1966)playedasignificantroleindeterminingthecontemporaryreceptionofKantinEnglandandAmerica.MorerecentinterpretersofnoteintheEnglish-speakingworldincludeLewisWhiteBeck,JonathanBennett,HenryAllison,PaulGuyer,ChristineKorsgaard,StephenPalmquist,RobertB.Pippin,RogerScruton,RudolfMakkreel,andBéatriceLonguenesse. Generalintroductionstohisthought Broad,C.D.Kant:AnIntroduction.CambridgeUniversityPress,1978.ISBN 978-0-521-21755-2,0-521-29265-4 Gardner,Sebastian.KantandtheCritiqueofPureReason.Routledge,1999.ISBN 978-0-415-11909-2 Martin,Gottfried.Kant'sMetaphysicsandTheoryofScience.GreenwoodPress,1955ISBN 978-0-8371-7154-8(elucidatesKant'smostfundamentalconceptsintheirhistoricalcontext) Palmquist,Stephen.Kant'sSystemofPerspectivesArchived14April2012attheWaybackMachine:anarchitectonicinterpretationoftheCriticalphilosophy.Lanham,MD:UniversityPressofAmerica,1993.ISBN 978-0-8191-8927-1 Seung,T.K.2007.Kant:aGuideforthePerplexed.London:Continuum.ISBN 978-0-8264-8580-9 SatyanandaGiri.Kant.Durham,CT:StrategicPublishingGroup,2010.ISBN 978-1-60911-686-6 Scruton,Roger.Kant:aVeryShortIntroduction.OxfordUniversityPress,2001.ISBN 978-0-19-280199-9(providesabriefaccountofhislife,andalucidintroductiontothethreemajorcritiques) Uleman,Jennifer.AnIntroductiontoKant'sMoralPhilosophy.CambridgeUniversityPress,2010.ISBN 978-0-521-13644-0 Luchte,James.Kant'sCritiqueofPureReason.BloomsburyPublishing,2007.ISBN 978-0-8264-9322-4 Deleuze,Gilles.Kant'sCriticalPhilosophy:TheDoctrineoftheFaculties.TheAthlonePress,1983.ISBN 978-0-485-11249-8 Biographyandhistoricalcontext Bader,Ralph(2008)."Kant,Immanuel(1724–1804)".InHamowy,Ronald(ed.).TheEncyclopediaofLibertarianism.ThousandOaks,CA:Sage;CatoInstitute.pp. 269–271.doi:10.4135/9781412965811.n161.ISBN 978-1-4129-6580-4.LCCN 2008009151.OCLC 750831024. Beck,LewisWhite.EarlyGermanPhilosophy:KantandhisPredecessors.HarvardUniversityPress,1969.(asurveyofKant'sintellectualbackground) Beiser,FrederickC.TheFateofReason:GermanPhilosophyfromKanttoFichte.HarvardUniversityPress,1987. Beiser,FrederickC.GermanIdealism:theStruggleagainstSubjectivism,1781–1801.HarvardUniversityPress,2002 Cassirer,Ernst.Kant'sLifeandThought.TranslationofKantsLebenundLehre.Trans.,JameS.Haden,intr.StephanKörner.NewHaven,CT:YaleUniversityPress,1981. Chamberlain,HoustonStewart.ImmanuelKant –astudyandacomparisonwithGoethe,LeonardodaVinci,Bruno,PlatoandDescartes,theauthorisedtranslationfromtheGermanbyLordRedesdale,withhis'Introduction',TheBodleyHead,London,1914,(2volumes). Gulyga,Arsenij.ImmanuelKant:HisLifeandThought.Trans.,MarijanDespaltović.Boston:Birkhäuser,1987. Johnson,G.R.(ed.).KantonSwedenborg.DreamsofaSpirit-SeerandOtherWritings.SwedenborgFoundation,2002.(newtranslationandanalysis,manysupplementarytexts) Lehner,UlrichL.,KantsVorsehungskonzeptaufdemHintergrundderdeutschenSchulphilosophieundtheologieArchived23September2006attheWaybackMachine(Leiden:2007)(Kant'sconceptofProvidenceanditsbackgroundinGermanschoolphilosophyandtheology) Pinkard,Terry.GermanPhilosophy,1760–1860:theLegacyofIdealism.Cambridge,2002. Pippin,Robert.IdealismasModernism.CambridgeUniversityPress,1996. Sassen,Brigitte(ed.).Kant'sEarlyCritics:theEmpiricistCritiqueoftheTheoreticalPhilosophy,Cambridge,2000. Schabert,JosephA."Kant'sInfluenceonhisSuccessors",TheAmericanCatholicQuarterlyReview,Vol.XLVII,January1922. Collectionsofessays Firestone,ChrisL.andPalmquist,Stephen(eds.).KantandtheNewPhilosophyofReligion.NotreDame:IndianaUniversityPress,2006.ISBN 978-0-253-21800-1 Förster,Eckart(ed.).Kant'sTranscendentalDeductions:.TheThree'Critiques'andthe'OpusPostumum'Stanford:StanfordUniversityPress,1989.IncludesanimportantessaybyDieterHenrich. Guyer,Paul(ed.).TheCambridgeCompaniontoKant,Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1992.ISBN 978-0-521-36587-1.ExcellentcollectionofpapersthatcoversmostareasofKant'sthought. Mohanty,J.N.andShahan,RobertW.(eds.).EssaysonKant'sCritiqueofPureReason.Norman:UniversityofOklahomaPress,1982.ISBN 978-0-8061-1782-9 Phillips,Dewietal.(eds.).KantandKierkegaardonReligion.NewYork:PalgraveMacmillan,2000,ISBN 978-0-312-23234-4CollectionofessaysaboutKantianreligionanditsinfluenceonKierkegaardianandcontemporaryphilosophyofreligion. ProceedingsoftheInternationalKantCongresses.SeveralCongresses(numbered)editedbyvariouspublishers. Theoreticalphilosophy Allison,Henry.Kant'sTranscendentalIdealism.NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,1983,2004.ISBN 978-0-300-03629-9(averyinfluentialdefenseofKant'sidealism,recentlyrevised). Ameriks,Karl.Kant'sTheoryofMind:AnAnalysisoftheParalogismsofPureReason.Oxford:ClarendonPress,1982(oneofthefirstdetailedstudiesoftheDialecticinEnglish). Banham,Gary.Kant'sTranscendentalImagination.LondonandNewYork:PalgraveMacmillan,2006. Deleuze,Gilles.Kant'sCriticalPhilosophy.Trans.,HughTomlinsonandBarbaraHabberjam.UniversityofMinnesotaPress,1984.ISBN 978-0-8166-1341-0 Gram,MoltkeS.TheTranscendentalTurn:TheFoundationofKant'sIdealism.Gainesville:UniversityPressesofFlorida,1984.ISBN 978-0-8130-0787-8 Greenberg,Robert.Kant'sTheoryofAPrioriKnowledge.PennStatePress,2001ISBN 978-0-271-02083-9 Guyer,Paul.KantandtheClaimsofKnowledge.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1987(moderndefenseoftheviewthatKant'stheoreticalphilosophyisa"patchwork"ofill-fittingarguments). Heidegger,Martin.KantandtheProblemofMetaphysics.Trans.,RichardTaft.Bloomington:IndianaUniversityPress,1997.ISBN 978-0-253-21067-8 Henrich,Dieter.TheUnityofReason:EssaysonKant'sPhilosophy.Ed.withintroductionbyRichardL.Velkley;trans.JeffreyEdwardsetal.HarvardUniversityPress,1994.ISBN 978-0-674-92905-0 KempSmith,Norman.ACommentarytoKant's'CritiqueofPureReason.London:Macmillan,1930(influentialcommentaryonthefirstCritique,recentlyreprinted). Kitcher,Patricia.Kant'sTranscendentalPsychology.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1990. Longuenesse,Béatrice.KantandtheCapacitytoJudge.PrincetonUniversityPress,1998.ISBN 978-0-691-04348-7.(arguesthatthenotionofjudgmentprovidesthekeytounderstandingtheoverallargumentofthefirstCritique) Melnick,Arthur.Kant'sAnalogiesofExperience.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1973.(importantstudyofKant'sAnalogies,includinghisdefenseoftheprincipleofcausality) Paton,H.J.Kant'sMetaphysicofExperience:aCommentaryontheFirstHalfoftheKritikderreinenVernunft.Twovolumes.London:Macmillan,1936.(extensivestudyofKant'stheoreticalphilosophy) Pippin,RobertB.Kant'sTheoryofForm:AnEssayontheCritiqueofPureReason.NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,1982.(influentialexaminationoftheformalcharacterofKant'swork) Schopenhauer,Arthur.DieWeltalsWilleundVorstellung.ErsterBand.Anhang.KritikderKantischenPhilosophie.F.A.Brockhaus,Leipzig1859(InEnglish:ArthurSchopenhauer,NewYork:DoverPress,VolumeI,Appendix,"CritiqueoftheKantianPhilosophy",ISBN 978-0-486-21761-1) Schott,RobinMay(1997).FeministinterpretationsofImmanuelKant.UniversityPark,Pennsylvania:PennsylvaniaStateUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-271-01676-4. Seung,T.K.Kant'sTranscendentalLogic.NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,1969. Strawson,P.F.TheBoundsofSense:AnEssayonKant'sCritiqueofPureReason.Routledge,1989(theworkthatrevitalizedtheinterestofcontemporaryanalyticphilosophersinKant). Sturm,Thomas,KantunddieWissenschaftenvomMenschen.Paderborn:MentisVerlag,2009.ISBN 978-3-89785-608-0.reviewArchived11December2013attheWaybackMachine(TreatsKant'santhropologyandhisviewsonpsychologyandhistoryinrelationtohisphilosophyofscience.) Tonelli,Giorgio.Kant'sCritiqueofPureReasonwithintheTraditionofModernLogic.ACommentaryonitsHistory.Hildesheim,Olms1994 Werkmeister,W.H.,Kant:TheArchitectonicandDevelopmentofHisPhilosophy,OpenCourtPublishingCo.,LaSalle,Ill.;1980ISBN 978-0-87548-345-0(ittreats,asawhole,thearchitectonicanddevelopmentofKant'sphilosophyfrom1755throughtheOpuspostumum.) Wolff,RobertPaul.Kant'sTheoryofMentalActivity:ACommentaryontheTranscendentalAnalyticoftheCritiqueofPureReason.Cambridge,Massachusetts:HarvardUniversityPress,1963.(detailedandinfluentialcommentaryonthefirstpartoftheCritiqueofPureReason) Yovel,Yirmiyahu.KantandthePhilosophyofHistory.Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,1980.(reviewArchived4January2017attheWaybackMachine) Practicalphilosophy Allison,Henry.Kant'sTheoryofFreedom.CambridgeUniversityPress1990. Banham,Gary.Kant'sPracticalPhilosophy:FromCritiquetoDoctrine.PalgraveMacmillan,2003. Dorschel,Andreas.DieidealistischeKritikdesWillens:VersuchüberdieTheoriederpraktischenSubjektivitätbeiKantundHegel.Hamburg:FelixMeiner,1992(SchriftenzurTranszendentalphilosophie10)ISBN 978-3-7873-1046-3. Friedman,Michael(June1998)."Kantianthemesincontemporaryphilosophy".ProceedingsoftheAristotelianSociety,SupplementaryVolumes.72(1):111–130.doi:10.1111/1467-8349.00038.JSTOR 4107015. Korsgaard,ChristineM.TheSourcesofNormativity.CambridgeUniversityPress,1996. Michalson,GordonE.FallenFreedom:KantonRadicalEvilandMoralRegeneration.CambridgeUniversityPress,1990. Michalson,GordonE.KantandtheProblemofGod.BlackwellPublishers,1999. Paton,H.J.TheCategoricalImperative:AStudyinKant'sMoralPhilosophy.UniversityofPennsylvaniaPress1971. Rawls,John.LecturesontheHistoryofMoralPhilosophy.Cambridge,2000. Seung,T.K.Kant'sPlatonicRevolutioninMoralandPoliticalPhilosophy.JohnsHopkins,1994. Wolff,RobertPaul.TheAutonomyofReason:ACommentaryonKant'sGroundworkoftheMetaphysicofMorals.NewYork:HarperCollins,1974.ISBN 978-0-06-131792-7. Wood,Allen.Kant'sEthicalThought.NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress,1999. Aesthetics Allison,Henry.Kant'sTheoryofTaste:AReadingoftheCritiqueofAestheticJudgment.Cambridge,UK:CambridgeUniversityPress,2001. Banham,Gary.KantandtheEndsofAesthetics.LondonandNewYork:MacmillanPress,2000. Clewis,Robert.TheKantianSublimeandtheRevelationofFreedom.Cambridge,UK:CambridgeUniversityPress,2009. Crawford,Donald.Kant'sAestheticTheory.Wisconsin,1974. Doran,Robert.TheTheoryoftheSublimefromLonginustoKant.Cambridge,UK:CambridgeUniversityPress,2015. Guyer,Paul.KantandtheClaimsofTaste.Cambridge,MassachusettsandLondon,1979. Hammermeister,Kai.TheGermanAestheticTradition.CambridgeUniversityPress,2002. ImmanuelKantentryinKelly,Michael(EditorinChief)(1998)EncyclopediaofAesthetics.NewYork,Oxford,OxfordUniversityPress. Kaplama,Erman.CosmologicalAestheticsthroughtheKantianSublimeandNietzscheanDionysian.Lanham:UPA,Rowman&Littlefield,2014. Makkreel,Rudolf,ImaginationandInterpretationinKant.Chicago,1990. McCloskey,Mary.Kant'sAesthetic.SUNY,1987. Schaper,Eva.StudiesinKant'sAesthetics.Edinburgh,1979. Zammito,JohnH.TheGenesisofKant'sCritiqueofJudgment.ChicagoandLondon:ChicagoUniversityPress,1992. Zupancic,Alenka.EthicsoftheReal:KantandLacan.Verso,2000. Philosophyofreligion Palmquist,Stephen.Kant'sCriticalReligionArchived14April2012attheWaybackMachine:VolumeTwoofKant'sSystemofPerspectives.Ashgate,2000.ISBN 978-0-7546-1333-6 Perez,DanielOmar."Religión,PolíticayMedicinaenKant:ElConflictodelasProposiciones".CintadeMoebio.RevistadeEpistemologiadeCienciasSociales,v.28,p. 91–103,2007.Uchile.clArchived20October2017attheWaybackMachine(Spanish) Perpetualpeaceandinternationalrelations SirHarryHinsley,PowerandthePursuitofPeace,CambridgeUniversityPress,1962. MartinWight,FourSeminalThinkersinInternationalTheory:Machiavelli,Grotius,KantandMazziniArchived29November2014attheWaybackMachineed.GabrieleWight&BrianPorter(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2005). Bennington,Geoffrey(December2011)."Kant'sopensecret"(PDF).Theory,Culture&Society.28(7–8):26–40.doi:10.1177/0263276411423036.S2CID 143513241.Archived(PDF)fromtheoriginalon8February2020.Retrieved31May2020. Otherworks Botul,Jean-Baptiste.Laviesexuelled'EmmanuelKant.Paris,Éd.MilleetuneNuits,2008.ISBN 978-2-84205-424-3 Caygill,Howard.AKantDictionary.Oxford;Cambridge,Mass.:BlackwellReference,1995.ISBN 978-0-631-17534-6 Derrida,Jacques.Mochlos;or,TheConflictoftheFaculties.ColumbiaUniversity,1980. Kelly,Michael.Kant'sEthicsandSchopenhauer'sCriticism,London:SwanSonnenschein1910.[Reprinted2010NabuPress,ISBN 978-1-171-70795-0] Mosser,Kurt.NecessityandPossibility;TheLogicalStrategyofKant'sCritiqueofPureReason.CatholicUniversityofAmericaPress,2008.ISBN 978-0-8132-1532-7 White,MarkD.KantianEthicsandEconomics:Autonomy,Dignity,andCharacterArchived16November2011attheWaybackMachine.StanfordUniversityPress,2011.ISBN 978-0-8047-6894-8. ContemporaryphilosophywithaKantianinfluence Assiter,Alison(July2013)."KantandKierkegaardonfreedomandevil".RoyalInstituteofPhilosophySupplement.72:275–296.Bibcode:1995kppp.book.....O.doi:10.1017/S1358246113000155.S2CID 170661991. Bird,Graham(June1998)."Kantianthemesincontemporaryphilosophy".ProceedingsoftheAristotelianSociety,SupplementaryVolumes.72(1):131–152.doi:10.1111/1467-8349.00039.JSTOR 4107015. Guyer,Paul.Knowledge,Reason,andTaste:Kant'sResponsetoHume.PrincetonUniversityPress,2008. Hanna,Robert,KantandtheFoundationsofAnalyticPhilosophy.ClarendonPress,2004. Hanna,Robert,Kant,Science,andHumanNature.ClarendonPress,2006. Herman,Barbara.ThePracticeofMoralJudgement.HarvardUniversityPress,1993. Hill,JudithM.(June1987)."Pornographyanddegradation".Hypatia:AJournalofFeministPhilosophy.2(2):39–54.doi:10.1111/j.1527-2001.1987.tb01064.x.JSTOR 3810015.S2CID 145504474.(AKantianapproachtotheissueofpornographyanddegradation.) Korsgaard,Christine.CreatingtheKingdomofEnds.Cambridge,NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress,1996.ISBN 978-0-521-49644-5(notacommentary,butadefenseofabroadlyKantianapproachtoethics) McDowell,John.MindandWorld.HarvardUniversityPress,1994.ISBN 978-0-674-57609-4.(offersaKantiansolutiontoadilemmaincontemporaryepistemologyregardingtherelationbetweenmindandworld) O'Neill,Onora(June1998)."Kantondutiesregardingnonrationalnature".ProceedingsoftheAristotelianSociety,SupplementaryVolumes.72(1):211–228.doi:10.1111/1467-8349.00043.JSTOR 4107017. Parfit,Derek.OnWhatMatters(2vols.).NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,2011.ISBN 978-0-19-926592-3 Pinker,Steven.TheStuffofThought.VikingPress,2007.ISBN 978-0-670-06327-7.(Chapter4"CleavingtheAir"discussesKant'santicipationofmoderncognitivescience) Wood,AllenW.Kant'sEthicalThought.Cambridge,NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress,1999.ISBN 978-0-521-64836-3.(comprehensive,in-depthstudyofKant'sethics,withemphasisonformulaofhumanityasmostaccurateformulationofthecategoricalimperative) Wood,AllenW.(June1998)."Kantondutiesregardingnonrationalnature".ProceedingsoftheAristotelianSociety,SupplementaryVolumes.72(1):189–210.doi:10.1111/1467-8349.00042.JSTOR 4107017. Externallinks[edit] ImmanuelKantatWikipedia'ssisterprojectsDefinitionsfromWiktionaryMediafromCommonsQuotationsfromWikiquoteTextsfromWikisourceDatafromWikidata WorksbyImmanuelKantatProjectGutenberg WorksbyoraboutImmanuelKantatInternetArchive WorksbyImmanuelKantatLibriVox(publicdomainaudiobooks) KantPapers,authorsandpapersdatabasepoweredbyPhilPapers,focusedonKant,andlocatedatCornellUniversity ImmanuelKantattheEncyclopædiaBritannica ImmanuelKantintheChristianCyclopedia WorksbyImmanuelKantatDuisburg-EssenUniversity StephenPalmquist'sGlossaryofKantianTerminology Kant'sEthicalTheory –Kantianethicsexplained,appliedandevaluated NotesonUtilitarianism –AconvenientlybriefsurveyofKant'sUtilitarianism InternetEncyclopediaofPhilosophy:ImmanuelKant:AnOverview InternetEncyclopediaofPhilosophy:ImmanuelKant:Aesthetics InternetEncyclopediaofPhilosophy:ImmanuelKant:Logic InternetEncyclopediaofPhilosophy:ImmanuelKant:Metaphysics InternetEncyclopediaofPhilosophy:ImmanuelKant:PhilosophyofMind 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