Stoicism - Wikipedia

The word "stoic" commonly refers to someone who is indifferent to pain, pleasure, grief, or joy. ... The modern usage as a "person who represses feelings or ... Stoicism FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Philosophicalsystem ZenoofCitium,thefounderofStoicism,intheFarnesecollection,Naples–PhotobyPaoloMonti,1969 PartofaseriesonStoicismZenoofCitium,Epictetus,Seneca,andMarcusAurelius Background Socrates Plato Aristotle CratesofThebes Philosophy Apatheia Ekpyrosis Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Stoiclogic Stoiccategories Stoicpassions Stoicphysics Virtueethics Stoics ZenoofCitium Cleanthes Chrysippus Panaetius Posidonius SenecatheYounger PubliusClodiusThraseaPaetus Epictetus JuniusRusticus MarcusAurelius Stoicworks DiscoursesofEpictetus EpistulaeMoralesadLucilium TheMeditations Similarpositions Cynicism Aristotelianism MiddlePlatonism Contrarypositions Pyrrhonism AcademicSkepticism Epicureanism  Philosophyportalvte StoicismisaschoolofHellenisticphilosophyfoundedbyZenoofCitiuminAthensintheearly3rdcenturyBC.Itisaphilosophyofpersonaleudaemonicvirtueethicsinformedbyitssystemoflogicanditsviewsonthenaturalworld,assertingthatthepracticeofvirtueisbothnecessaryandsufficienttoachieveeudaimonia—flourishingbymeansoflivinganethicallife.TheStoicsidentifiedthepathtoeudaimoniawithalifespentpracticingthecardinalvirtuesandlivinginaccordancewithnature. TheStoicsareespeciallyknownforteachingthat"virtueistheonlygood"forhumanbeings,andthoseexternalthings—suchashealth,wealth,andpleasure—arenotgoodnorbadinthemselves(adiaphora)buthavevalueas"materialforvirtuetoactupon."AlongsideAristotelianethics,theStoictraditionformsoneofthemajorfoundingapproachestovirtueethics.[1]TheStoicsalsoheldthatcertaindestructiveemotionsresultedfromerrorsofjudgment,andtheybelievedpeopleshouldaimtomaintainawill(calledprohairesis)thatis"inaccordancewithnature".Becauseofthis,theStoicsthoughtthebestindicationofanindividual'sphilosophywasnotwhatapersonsaidbuthowapersonbehaved.[2]Toliveagoodlife,onehadtounderstandtherulesofthenaturalordersincetheythoughteverythingwasrootedinnature. ManyStoics—suchasSenecaandEpictetus—emphasizedthatbecause"virtueissufficientforhappiness",asagewouldbeemotionallyresilienttomisfortune.Thisbeliefissimilartothemeaningofthephrase"stoiccalm",thoughthephrasedoesnotincludethetraditionalStoicviewthatonlyasagecanbeconsideredtrulyfreeandthatallmoralcorruptionsareequallyvicious.[3] StoicismflourishedthroughouttheRomanandGreekworlduntilthe3rdcenturyAD,andamongitsadherentswasEmperorMarcusAurelius.ItexperiencedadeclineafterChristianitybecamethestatereligioninthe4thcenturyAD.Sincethen,ithasseenrevivals,notablyintheRenaissance(Neostoicism)andinthecontemporaryera(modernStoicism).[4] Contents 1Name 1.1Origins 1.2Modernusage 2Basictenets 3History 4Logic 4.1Propositionallogic 4.2Categories 4.3Epistemology 5Physics 6Ethics 6.1Thedoctrineof"thingsindifferent" 6.2Spiritualexercise 6.3Loveandsexuality 7Socialphilosophy 8InfluenceonChristianity 9Stoicphilosophers 10Seealso 11References 12Furtherreading 12.1Primarysources 12.2Studies 13Externallinks Name[edit] Origins[edit] Stoicismwasoriginallyknownas"Zenonism",afterthefounderZenoofCitium.However,thisnamewassoondropped,likelybecausetheStoicsdidnotconsidertheirfounderstobeperfectlywiseandtoavoidtheriskofthephilosophybecomingacultofpersonality.[5] Thename"Stoicism"derivesfromtheStoaPoikile(AncientGreek:ἡποικίληστοά),or"paintedporch",acolonnadedecoratedwithmythicandhistoricalbattlescenesonthenorthsideoftheAgorainAthenswhereZenoandhisfollowersgatheredtodiscusstheirideas.[6][7] SometimesStoicismisthereforereferredtoas"TheStoa",orthephilosophyof"ThePorch".[5] Modernusage[edit] Theword"stoic"commonlyreferstosomeonewhoisindifferenttopain,pleasure,grief,orjoy.[8]Themodernusageasa"personwhorepressesfeelingsorendurespatiently"wasfirstcitedin1579asanounandin1596asanadjective.[9]Incontrasttotheterm"Epicurean",theStanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophy'sentryonStoicismnotes,"thesenseoftheEnglishadjective'stoical'isnotutterlymisleadingwithregardtoitsphilosophicalorigins".[10] Basictenets[edit] Philosophydoesnotpromisetosecureanythingexternalforman,otherwiseitwouldbeadmittingsomethingthatliesbeyonditspropersubject-matter.Forasthematerialofthecarpenteriswood,andthatofstatuarybronze,sothesubject-matteroftheartoflivingiseachperson'sownlife.— Epictetus,Discourses1.15.2,RobinHardrevisedtranslation TheStoicsprovidedaunifiedaccountoftheworld,constructedfromidealsoflogic,monisticphysics,andnaturalisticethics.Ofthese,theyemphasizedethicsasthemainfocusofhumanknowledge,thoughtheirlogicaltheorieswereofmoreinterestforlaterphilosophers. Stoicismteachesthedevelopmentofself-controlandfortitudeasameansofovercomingdestructiveemotions;thephilosophyholdsthatbecomingaclearandunbiasedthinkerallowsonetounderstandtheuniversalreason(logos).Stoicism'sprimaryaspectinvolvesimprovingtheindividual'sethicalandmoralwell-being:"VirtueconsistsinawillthatisinagreementwithNature".[11]Thisprinciplealsoappliestotherealmofinterpersonalrelationships;"tobefreefromanger,envy,andjealousy",[12]andtoacceptevenslavesas"equalsofothermen,becauseallmenalikeareproductsofnature".[13] TheStoicethicespousesadeterministicperspective;inregardtothosewholackStoicvirtue,Cleanthesonceopinedthatthewickedmanis"likeadogtiedtoacart,andcompelledtogowhereveritgoes".[11]AStoicofvirtue,bycontrast,wouldamendhiswilltosuittheworldandremain,inthewordsofEpictetus,"sickandyethappy,inperilandyethappy,dyingandyethappy,inexileandhappy,indisgraceandhappy",[12]thuspositinga"completelyautonomous"individualwillandatthesametimeauniversethatis"arigidlydeterministicsinglewhole".Thisviewpointwaslaterdescribedas"ClassicalPantheism"(andwasadoptedbyDutchphilosopherBaruchSpinoza).[14] History[edit] Antisthenes,founderoftheCynicschoolofphilosophy Beginningaround301BC,ZenotaughtphilosophyattheStoaPoikile("PaintedPorch"),fromwhichhisphilosophygotitsname.[15]Unliketheotherschoolsofphilosophy,suchastheEpicureans,Zenochosetoteachhisphilosophyinapublicspace,whichwasacolonnadeoverlookingthecentralgatheringplaceofAthens,theAgora. Zeno'sideasdevelopedfromthoseoftheCynics,whosefoundingfather,Antisthenes,hadbeenadiscipleofSocrates.Zeno'smostinfluentialfollowerwasChrysippus,whowasresponsibleformoldingwhatisnowcalledStoicism.LaterRomanStoicsfocusedonpromotingalifeinharmonywithintheuniverseoverwhichonehasnodirectcontrol. BustofSeneca ScholarsusuallydividethehistoryofStoicismintothreephases: EarlyStoa,fromZeno'sfoundingtoAntipater MiddleStoa,includingPanaetiusandPosidonius LateStoa,includingMusoniusRufus,Seneca,Epictetus,andMarcusAurelius NocompleteworkssurvivedfromthefirsttwophasesofStoicism.OnlyRomantextsfromtheLateStoasurvived.[16] StoicismbecametheforemostpopularphilosophyamongtheeducatedeliteintheHellenisticworldandtheRomanEmpire[17]tothepointwhere,inthewordsofGilbertMurray,"nearlyallthesuccessorsofAlexander[...]professedthemselvesStoics".[18] Logic[edit] Mainarticle:Stoiclogic Propositionallogic[edit] DiodorusCronus,whowasoneofZeno'steachers,isconsideredthephilosopherwhofirstintroducedanddevelopedanapproachtologicnowknownaspropositionallogic,whichisbasedonstatementsorpropositions,ratherthanterms,differinggreatlyfromAristotle'stermlogic.Later,ChrysippusdevelopedasystemthatbecameknownasStoiclogicandincludedadeductivesystem,StoicSyllogistic,whichwasconsideredarivaltoAristotle'sSyllogistic(seeSyllogism).NewinterestinStoiclogiccameinthe20th century,whenimportantdevelopmentsinlogicwerebasedonpropositionallogic.SusanneBobzienwrote,"ThemanyclosesimilaritiesbetweenChrysippus'sphilosophicallogicandthatofGottlobFregeareespeciallystriking".[19] Bobzienalsonotesthat,"Chrysippuswroteover300booksonlogic,onvirtuallyanytopiclogictodayconcernsitselfwith,includingspeechacttheory,sentenceanalysis,singularandpluralexpressions,typesofpredicates,indexicals,existentialpropositions,sententialconnectives,negations,disjunctions,conditionals,logicalconsequence,validargumentforms,theoryofdeduction,propositionallogic,modallogic,tenselogic,epistemiclogic,logicofsuppositions,logicofimperatives,ambiguityandlogicalparadoxes".[19] Categories[edit] Mainarticle:Stoiccategories TheStoicsheldthatallbeings(ὄντα)—thoughnotallthings(τινά)—arematerial.[20]Besidestheexistingbeingstheyadmittedfourincorporeals(asomata):time,place,void,andsayable.[21]Theywereheldtobejust'subsisting'whilesuchastatuswasdeniedtouniversals.[22]Thus,theyacceptedAnaxagoras'sidea(asdidAristotle)thatifanobjectishot,itisbecausesomepartofauniversalheatbodyhadenteredtheobject.But,unlikeAristotle,theyextendedtheideatocoverallaccidents.Thus,ifanobjectisred,itwouldbebecausesomepartofauniversalredbodyhadenteredtheobject. Theyheldthattherewerefourcategories. Substance(ὑποκείμενον):Theprimarymatter,formlesssubstance,(ousia)thatthingsaremadeof Quality(ποιόν):Thewaymatterisorganizedtoformanindividualobject;inStoicphysics,aphysicalingredient(pneuma:airorbreath),whichinformsthematter Somehowdisposed(πωςἔχον):Particularcharacteristics,notpresentwithintheobject,suchassize,shape,action,andposture Somehowdisposedinrelationtosomething(πρόςτίπωςἔχον):Characteristicsrelatedtootherphenomena,suchasthepositionofanobjectwithintimeandspacerelativetootherobjects Makeforyourselfadefinitionordescriptionofthethingwhichispresentedtoyou,soastoseedistinctlywhatkindofathingitisinitssubstance,initsnudity,initscompleteentirety,andtellyourselfitspropername,andthenamesofthethingsofwhichithasbeencompounded,andintowhichitwillberesolved.Fornothingissoproductiveofelevationofmindastobeabletoexaminemethodicallyandtrulyeveryobjectthatispresentedtoyouinlife,andalwaystolookatthingssoastoseeatthesametimewhatkindofuniversethisis,andwhatkindofuseeverythingperformsinit,andwhatvalueeverythinghaswithreferencetothewhole.— MarcusAurelius,Meditations,iii.11 Stoicsoutlinedwhatwehavecontrolovercategoriesofourownaction,thoughtsandreaction.TheopeningparagraphoftheEnchiridionstatesthecategoriesas:"Thingsinourcontrolareopinion,pursuit,desire,aversion,and,inaword,whateverareourownactions.Thingsnotinourcontrolarebody,property,reputation,command,and,inaword,whateverarenotourownactions."Thesesuggestaspacethatiswithinourowncontrol. Epistemology[edit] TheStoicspropoundedthatknowledgecanbeattainedthroughtheuseofreason.Truthcanbedistinguishedfromfallacy—evenif,inpractice,onlyanapproximationcanbemade.AccordingtotheStoics,thesensesconstantlyreceivesensations:pulsationsthatpassfromobjectsthroughthesensestothemind,wheretheyleaveanimpressionintheimagination(phantasiai)(animpressionarisingfromthemindwascalledaphantasma).[23] Themindhastheabilitytojudge(συγκατάθεσις,synkatathesis)—approveorreject—animpression,enablingittodistinguishatruerepresentationofrealityfromonethatisfalse.Someimpressionscanbeassentedtoimmediately,butotherscanachieveonlyvaryingdegreesofhesitantapproval,whichcanbelabeledbelieforopinion(doxa).Itisonlythroughreasonthatwegainclearcomprehensionandconviction(katalepsis).Certainandtrueknowledge(episteme),achievablebytheStoicsage,canbeattainedonlybyverifyingtheconvictionwiththeexpertiseofone'speersandthecollectivejudgmentofhumankind. Physics[edit] Mainarticle:Stoicphysics Seealso:DeMundo AccordingtotheStoics,theUniverseisamaterialreasoningsubstance(logos),[24]knownasGodorNature,whichwasdividedintotwoclasses:theactiveandthepassive.[25]Thepassivesubstanceismatter,which"liessluggish,asubstancereadyforanyuse,butsuretoremainunemployedifnoonesetsitinmotion".[26]Theactivesubstance,whichcanbecalledFateorUniversalReason(logos),[24]isanintelligentaetherorprimordialfire,whichactsonthepassivematter: TheuniverseitselfisGodandtheuniversaloutpouringofitssoul;itisthissameworld'sguidingprinciple,operatinginmindandreason,togetherwiththecommonnatureofthingsandthetotalitythatembracesallexistence;thentheforeordainedmightandnecessityofthefuture;thenfireandtheprincipleofaether;thenthoseelementswhosenaturalstateisoneoffluxandtransition,suchaswater,earth,andair;thenthesun,themoon,thestars;andtheuniversalexistenceinwhichallthingsarecontained.— Chrysippus,inCicero,DeNaturaDeorum,i.39 EverythingissubjecttothelawsofFate,fortheUniverseactsaccordingtoitsownnature,andthenatureofthepassivematteritgoverns.ThesoulsofhumansandanimalsareemanationsfromthisprimordialFire,andare,likewise,subjecttoFate: Constantlyregardtheuniverseasonelivingbeing,havingonesubstanceandonesoul;andobservehowallthingshavereferencetooneperception,theperceptionofthisonelivingbeing;andhowallthingsactwithonemovement;andhowallthingsarethecooperatingcausesofallthingsthatexist;observetoothecontinuousspinningofthethreadandthestructureoftheweb.— MarcusAurelius,Meditations,iv.40 Individualsoulsareperishablebynature,andcanbe"transmutedanddiffused,assumingafierynaturebybeingreceivedintotheseminalreason("logosspermatikos")oftheUniverse".[27]SincerightReasonisthefoundationofbothhumanityandtheuniverse,itfollowsthatthegoaloflifeistoliveaccordingtoReason,thatis,tolivealifeaccordingtoNature. Chrysippus Stoictheologyisafatalisticandnaturalisticpantheism:Godisneverfullytranscendentbutalwaysimmanent,andidentifiedwithNature.AbrahamicreligionspersonalizeGodasaworld-creatingentity,butStoicismequatesGodwiththetotalityoftheuniverse;accordingtoStoiccosmology,whichisverysimilartotheHinduconceptionofexistence,thereisnoabsolutestarttotime,asitisconsideredinfiniteandcyclic.Similarly,thespaceandUniversehaveneitherstartnorend,rathertheyarecyclical.ThecurrentUniverseisaphaseinthepresentcycle,precededbyaninfinitenumberofUniverses,doomedtobedestroyed("ekpyrōsis",conflagration)andre-createdagain,[28]andtobefollowedbyanotherinfinitenumberofUniverses.Stoicismconsidersallexistenceascyclical,thecosmosaseternallyself-creatingandself-destroying(seealsoEternalreturn). Stoicism,justlikeIndianreligionssuchasHinduism,Buddhism,andJainism,doesnotpositabeginningorendtotheUniverse.[29]AccordingtotheStoics,thelogoswastheactivereason[24]oranimamundipervadingandanimatingtheentireUniverse.ItwasconceivedasmaterialandisusuallyidentifiedwithGodorNature.TheStoicsalsoreferredtotheseminalreason("logosspermatikos"),orthelawofgenerationintheUniverse,whichwastheprincipleoftheactivereasonworkingininanimatematter.Humans,too,eachpossessaportionofthedivinelogos,whichistheprimordialFireandreasonthatcontrolsandsustainstheUniverse.[30] ThefirstphilosopherstoexplicitlydescribenominalistargumentsweretheStoics,especiallyChrysippus.[31][32] Ethics[edit] AncientStoicsareoftenmisunderstoodbecausethetermstheyusedpertainedtodifferentconceptsthantoday.Theword"stoic"hassincecometomean"unemotional"orindifferenttopainbecauseStoicethicstaughtfreedomfrom"passion"byfollowing"reason".TheStoicsdidnotseektoextinguishemotions;rather,theysoughttotransformthembyaresolute"askēsis",thatenablesapersontodevelopclearjudgmentandinnercalm.[33]Logic,reflection,andfocuswerethemethodsofsuchself-discipline,temperanceissplitintoself-control,discipline,andmodesty. BorrowingfromtheCynics,thefoundationofStoicethicsisthatgoodliesinthestateofthesoulitself;inwisdomandself-control.Stoicethicsstressedtherule:"Followwherereasonleads".[citationneeded]Onemustthereforestrivetobefreeofthepassions,bearinginmindthattheancientmeaningofpathos(pluralpathe)translatedhereaspassionwas"anguish"or"suffering",[34]thatis,"passively"reactingtoexternalevents,whichissomewhatdifferentfromthemodernuseoftheword.TermsusedinStoicismrelatedtopathosincludepropathosorinstinctivereaction(e.g.,turningpaleandtremblingwhenconfrontedbyphysicaldanger)andeupathos,whichisthemarkoftheStoicsage(sophos).Theeupatheiaarefeelingsthatresultfromthecorrectjudgmentinthesamewaythatpassionsresultfromincorrectjudgment.Theideawastobefreeofsufferingthroughapatheia(Greek:ἀπάθεια;literally,"withoutpassion")orpeaceofmind,[35]wherepeaceofmindwasunderstoodintheancientsense—beingobjectiveorhaving"clearjudgment"andthemaintenanceofequanimityinthefaceoflife'shighsandlows. FortheStoics,reasonmeantusinglogicandunderstandingtheprocessesofnature—thelogosoruniversalreason,inherentinallthings.Accordingtoreasonandvirtue,livingaccordingtoreasonandvirtueistoliveinharmonywiththedivineorderoftheuniverse,inrecognitionofthecommonreasonandessentialvalueofallpeople. Thefourcardinalvirtues(aretai)ofStoicphilosophyisaclassificationderivedfromtheteachingsofPlato(RepublicIV.426–35): Wisdom(Greek:φρόνησις"phronesis"orσοφία"sophia",Latin:prudentiaorsapientia) Courage(Greek:ανδρεία"andreia",Latin:fortitudo) Justice(Greek:δικαιοσύνη"dikaiosyne",Latin:iustitia) Temperance(Greek:σωφροσύνη"sophrosyne",Latin:temperantia) FollowingSocrates,theStoicsheldthatunhappinessandevilaretheresultsofhumanignoranceofthereasoninnature.Ifsomeoneisunkind,itisbecausetheyareunawareoftheirownuniversalreason,whichleadstotheconclusionofunkindness.ThesolutiontoevilandunhappinessthenisthepracticeofStoicphilosophy:toexamineone'sownjudgmentsandbehavioranddeterminewheretheydivergefromtheuniversalreasonofnature. TheStoicsacceptedthatsuicidewaspermissibleforthewisepersonincircumstancesthatmightpreventthemfromlivingavirtuouslife.[36]PlutarchheldthatacceptinglifeundertyrannywouldhavecompromisedCato'sself-consistency(constantia)asaStoicandimpairedhisfreedomtomakethehonorablemoralchoices.[37]Suicidecouldbejustifiedifonefellvictimtoseverepainordisease,[36]butotherwisesuicidewouldusuallybeseenasarejectionofone'ssocialduty.[38] Thedoctrineof"thingsindifferent"[edit] Mainarticle:Adiaphora Seealso:Eudaimonia Inphilosophicalterms,thingsthatareindifferentareoutsidetheapplicationofmorallaw—thatiswithouttendencytoeitherpromoteorobstructmoralends.Actionsneitherrequirednorforbiddenbythemorallaw,orthatdonotaffectmorality,arecalledmorallyindifferent.Thedoctrineofthingsindifferent(ἀδιάφορα,adiaphora)aroseintheStoicschoolasacorollaryofitsdiametricoppositionofvirtueandvice(καθήκονταkathekonta,"convenientactions",oractionsinaccordancewithnature;andἁμαρτήματαhamartemata,mistakes).Asaresultofthisdichotomy,alargeclassofobjectswereleftunassignedandthusregardedasindifferent. Eventuallythreesub-classesof"thingsindifferent"developed:thingstopreferbecausetheyassistlifeaccordingtonature;thingstoavoidbecausetheyhinderit;andthingsindifferentinthenarrowersense.TheprincipleofadiaphorawasalsocommontotheCynics.PhilippMelanchthonrevivedthedoctrineofthingsindifferentduringtheRenaissance. Spiritualexercise[edit] MarcusAurelius,theStoicRomanemperor PhilosophyforaStoicisnotjustasetofbeliefsorethicalclaims;itisawayoflifeinvolvingconstantpracticeandtraining(or"askēsis").Stoicphilosophicalandspiritualpracticesincludedlogic,Socraticdialogueandself-dialogue,contemplationofdeath,mortalitysalience,trainingattentiontoremaininthepresentmoment(similartomindfulnessandsomeformsofBuddhistmeditation),anddailyreflectiononeverydayproblemsandpossiblesolutionse.g.withjournaling.PhilosophyforaStoicisanactiveprocessofconstantpracticeandself-reminder. InhisMeditations,MarcusAureliusdefinesseveralsuchpractices.Forexample,inBookII.I: Saytoyourselfintheearlymorning:Ishallmeettodayungrateful,violent,treacherous,envious,uncharitablemen.Alloftheignoranceofrealgoodandill ...Icanneitherbeharmedbyanyofthem,fornomanwillinvolvemeinwrong,norcanIbeangrywithmykinsmanorhatehim;forwehavecomeintotheworldtoworktogether ... PriortoAurelius,EpictetusinhisDiscourses,distinguishedbetweenthreetypesofact:judgment,desire,andinclination.[39]AccordingtophilosopherPierreHadot,Epictetusidentifiesthesethreeactswithlogic,physicsandethicsrespectively.[40]HadotwritesthatintheMeditations,"Eachmaximdevelopseitheroneoftheseverycharacteristictopoi[i.e.,acts],ortwoofthemorthreeofthem."[41] SeamusMacSuibhnehasdescribedthepracticesofspiritualexercisesasinfluencingthoseofreflectivepractice.[42]ManyparallelsbetweenStoicspiritualexercisesandmoderncognitivebehavioraltherapyhavebeenidentified.[43] Stoicswerealsoknownforconsolatoryorations,whichwerepartoftheconsolatioliterarytradition.ThreesuchconsolationsbySenecahavesurvived. Stoicscommonlyemploy‘TheViewfromAbove’,reflectingonsocietyandothernessinguidedvisualization,aimingtogaina"biggerpicture",toseeourselvesincontextrelevanttoothers,toseeothersinthecontextoftheworld,toseeourselvesinthecontextoftheworldtohelpdetermineourroleandtheimportanceofhappenings. MarcusAurelius,Meditations,inBook7.48itisstated; AfinereflectionfromPlato.Onewhowouldconverseabouthumanbeingsshouldlookonallthingsearthlyasthoughfromsomepointfarabove,uponherds,armies,andagriculture,marriagesanddivorces,birthsanddeaths,theclamouroflawcourts,desertedwastes,alienpeoplesofeverykind,festivals,lamentations,andmarkets,thisintermixtureofeverythingandorderedcombinationofopposites. Loveandsexuality[edit] Stoicsconsideredsexualityanelementwithinthelawofnaturethatwasnottobegoodorbadbyitself,butcondemnedpassionatedesireassomethingtobeavoided.[44][45][46]Earlyexponentsdifferedsignificantlyfromlatestoicsintheirviewofromanticloveandsexualrelationships.[44][45] Zenoadvocatedforarepublicruledbyloveandnotbylaw,wheremarriagewouldbeabolished,wiveswouldbeheldincommon,anderoticismwouldbepracticedwithbothboysandgirlswitheducativepurposes,todevelopvirtueinthelovedones.[44][46]However,hedidn'tcondemnmarriageperse,consideringitequallyanaturaloccurrence.[44][45]Heregardedsamesexrelationshipspositively,andmaintainedthatwisemenshould"havecarnalknowledgenolessandnomoreofafavoritethanofanon-favorite,norofafemalethanofamale."[46][47]Zenofavoredloveoverdesire,clarifyingthattheultimategoalofsexualityshouldbevirtueandfriendship.[45][46] Amonglaterstoics,Epictetusmaintainedhomosexualandheterosexualsexasequivalentinthisfield,[47]andcondemnedonlythekindofdesirethatledonetoactagainstjudgement.[45]However,contemporaneouspositionsgenerallyadvancedtowardsequatingsexualitywithpassion,andalthoughtheywerestillnothostiletosexualrelationshipsbythemselves,theynonethelessbelievedthoseshouldbelimitedinordertoretainself-control.[44][47]Musoniusspousedtheonlynaturalkindofsexwasthatmeantforprocreation,defendingacompanionateformofmarriagebetweenmanandwoman,[44]andconsideredrelationshipssolelyundergoneforpleasureoraffectionasunnatural.[45][47]Thisviewwasultimatelyinfluentialinothercurrentsofthought.[45] Socialphilosophy[edit] AdistinctivefeatureofStoicismisitscosmopolitanism;accordingtotheStoics,allpeoplearemanifestationsoftheoneuniversalspiritandshouldliveinbrotherlyloveandreadilyhelponeanother.IntheDiscourses,Epictetuscommentsonman'srelationshipwiththeworld:"Eachhumanbeingisprimarilyacitizenofhisowncommonwealth;butheisalsoamemberofthegreatcityofgodsandmen,whereofthecitypoliticalisonlyacopy."[48]ThissentimentechoesthatofDiogenesofSinope,whosaid,"IamnotanAthenianoraCorinthian,butacitizenoftheworld."[49] Theyheldthatexternaldifferences,suchasrankandwealth,areofnoimportanceinsocialrelationships.Instead,theyadvocatedthebrotherhoodofhumanityandthenaturalequalityofallhumanbeings.StoicismbecamethemostinfluentialschooloftheGreco-Romanworld,andproducedanumberofremarkablewritersandpersonalities,suchasCatotheYoungerandEpictetus. Inparticular,theywerenotedfortheirurgingofclemencytowardslaves.SenecainhisLetter47exhorted,"Kindlyrememberthathewhomyoucallyourslavesprangfromthesamestock,issmileduponbythesameskies,andonequaltermswithyourselfbreathes,lives,anddies."[50] InfluenceonChristianity[edit] Seealso:Neostoicism JustusLipsius,founderofNeostoicism InSt.AmbroseofMilan'sDuties,"ThevoiceisthevoiceofaChristianbishop,butthepreceptsarethoseofZeno."[51][52]Regardingwhathecalled"theDivineSpirit",MaxwellStaniforthwrote: Cleanthes,wishingtogivemoreexplicitmeaningtoZeno's'creativefire',hadbeenthefirsttohituponthetermpneuma,or'spirit',todescribeit.Likefire,thisintelligent'spirit'wasimaginedasatenuoussubstanceakintoacurrentofairorbreath,butessentiallypossessingthequalityofwarmth;itwasimmanentintheuniverseasGod,andinmanasthesoulandlife-givingprinciple.Clearly,itisnotalongstepfromthistothe'HolySpirit'ofChristiantheology,the'LordandGiveroflife',visiblymanifestedastonguesoffireatPentecostandeversinceassociated—intheChristianasintheStoicmind—withtheideasofvitalfireandbeneficientwarmth.[53] RegardingtheTrinity,Staniforthwrote: AgaininthedoctrineoftheTrinity,theecclesiasticalconceptionofFather,Word,andSpiritfindsitsgerminthedifferentStoicnamesoftheDivineUnity.ThusSeneca,writingofthesupremePowerwhichshapestheuniverse,states,'ThisPowerwesometimescalltheAll-rulingGod,sometimestheincorporealWisdom,sometimestheHolySpirit,sometimesDestiny.'TheChurchhadonlytorejectthelastofthesetermstoarriveatitsownacceptabledefinitionoftheDivineNature;whilethefurtherassertion'thesethreeareOne',whichthemodernmindfindsparadoxical,wasnomorethancommonplacetothosefamiliarwithStoicnotions.[53] TheapostlePaulmetwithStoicsduringhisstayinAthens,reportedinActs17:16–18.Inhisletters,PaulreflectedheavilyfromhisknowledgeofStoicphilosophy,usingStoictermsandmetaphorstoassisthisnewGentileconvertsintheirunderstandingofChristianity.[54]StoicinfluencecanalsobeseenintheworksofSt.Ambrose,MarcusMinuciusFelix,andTertullian.[55] TheFathersoftheChurchregardedStoicismasa"paganphilosophy";[56][57]nonetheless,earlyChristianwritersemployedsomeofthecentralphilosophicalconceptsofStoicism.Examplesincludetheterms"logos","virtue","Spirit",and"conscience".[29]Buttheparallelsgowellbeyondthesharingandborrowingofterminology.BothStoicismandChristianityassertaninnerfreedominthefaceoftheexternalworld,abeliefinhumankinshipwithNatureorGod,asenseoftheinnatedepravity—or"persistentevil"—ofhumankind,[29]andthefutilityandtemporarynatureofworldlypossessionsandattachments.BothencourageAscesiswithrespecttothepassionsandinferioremotions,suchaslust,andenvy,sothatthehigherpossibilitiesofone'shumanitycanbeawakenedanddeveloped. StoicwritingssuchasMeditationsbyMarcusAureliushavebeenhighlyregardedbymanyChristiansthroughoutthecenturies.TheEasternOrthodoxChurchandOrientalOrthodoxChurchaccepttheStoicidealofdispassiontothisday. MiddleandRomanStoicstaughtthatsexisjustwithinmarriage,forunitiveandprocreativepurposesonly.[58][59]ThisteachingisacceptedbytheCatholicChurchtothisday.[60] SaintAmbroseofMilanwasknownforapplyingStoicphilosophytohistheology. Stoicphilosophers[edit] Mainarticle:ListofStoicphilosophers ZenoofCitium(332–262 BC),founderofStoicismandtheStoicAcademy(Stoa)inAthens AristoofChios(fl.260 BC),pupilofZeno; HerillusofCarthage(fl.3rdcenturyBC) Cleanthes(ofAssos)(330–232 BC),secondheadofStoicAcademy Chrysippus(280–204 BC),thirdheadoftheacademy DiogenesofBabylon(230–150 BC) AntipaterofTarsus(210–129 BC) PanaetiusofRhodes(185–109 BC) PosidoniusofApameia(c. 135–51BC) Diodotus(c. 120–59BC),teacherofCicero CatotheYounger(94–46 BC) Seneca(4BC–65AD) GaiusMusoniusRufus(1stcenturyAD) RubelliusPlautus(33–62AD) PubliusClodiusThraseaPaetus(1stcenturyAD) LuciusAnnaeusCornutus(1stcenturyAD) Epictetus(55–135AD) Hierocles(2ndcenturyAD) MarcusAurelius(121–180AD) Seealso[edit] 4Maccabees Definitionsofphilosophy Dehellenization Deixis Ecclesiastes Ekpyrosis,palingenesis,apocatastasis Ekpyroticuniverse(cosmologicaltheory) GlossaryofStoicterms Megarianschool Oikeiôsis ParadoxaStoicorum PlankofCarneades Sage(philosophy) StoicOpposition Stoicpassions StoicorumVeterumFragmenta Tirukkural References[edit] ^Sharpe,Matthew."StoicVirtueEthics."HandbookofVirtueEthics,2013,28–41. ^JohnSellars.Stoicism,2006,p.32. ^Stoicism,StanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophy. ^Becker,LawrenceC.(2001).ANewStoicism.Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress.ISBN 978-1400822447. ^abRobertson,Donald(2018).StoicismandtheArtofHappiness.GreatBritain:JohnMurray. ^"DefinitionofSTOIC". ^Williamson,D.(1April2015).Kant'sTheoryofEmotion:EmotionalUniversalism.PalgraveMacmillanUS.p. 17.ISBN 978-1137498106. ^"ModernStoicism|BuildTheFire".BuildTheFire.9February2016.Retrieved22June2016. ^Harper,Douglas(November2001)."OnlineEtymologyDictionary –Stoic".Retrieved2September2006. ^Baltzly,Dirk(13December2004)."StanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophy –Stoicism".Retrieved2September2006. ^abRussell,Bertrand.AHistoryofWesternPhilosophy,p.254 ^abRussell,Bertrand.AHistoryofWesternPhilosophy,p.264 ^Russell,Bertrand.AHistoryofWesternPhilosophy,p.253. ^CharlesHartshorneandWilliamReese,"PhilosophersSpeakofGod,"HumanityBooks,1953ch4 ^Becker,Lawrence(2003).AHistoryofWesternEthics.NewYork:Routledge.p. 27.ISBN 978-0415968256. ^A.A.Long,HellenisticPhilosophy,p.115. ^Amos,H.(1982).TheseWeretheGreeks.ChesterSprings:DufourEditions.ISBN 978-0802312754.OCLC 9048254. ^GilbertMurray,TheStoicPhilosophy(1915),p.25.InBertrandRussell,AHistoryofWesternPhilosophy(1946). ^abAncientLogicbySusanneBobzien.StanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophy. ^JacquesBrunschwig,StoicMetaphysicsinTheCambridgeCompaniontoStoics,ed.B.Inwood,Cambridge,2006,pp.206–32 ^SextusEmpiricus,AdversusMathematicos10.218.(chronos,topos,kenon,lekton) ^MarceloD.Boeri,TheStoicsonBodiesandIncorporeals,TheReviewofMetaphysics,Vol.54,No.4(Jun.,2001),pp.723–52 ^DiogenesLaërtius(2000).Livesofeminentphilosophers.Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress.VII.49 ^abcBrenk,Frederick(January2016)."PaganMonotheismandPaganCult"."Theism"andRelatedCategoriesintheStudyofAncientReligions.SCS/AIAAnnualMeeting.Vol. 75.Philadelphia:SocietyforClassicalStudies(UniversityofPennsylvania).Archivedfromtheoriginalon6May2017.Retrieved14October2020.Historicalauthorsgenerallyreferto“thedivine”(totheion)or“thesupernatural”(todaimonion)ratherthansimply“God.”[...]TheStoics,believedinaGodidentifiablewiththelogosorhegemonikon(reasonorleadingprinciple)oftheuniverseanddowngradedthetraditionalgods,whoevendisappearduringtheconflagration(ekpyrosis).Yet,theStoicsapparentlydidnotpracticeaculttothisGod.MiddleandLaterPlatonists,whospokeofasupremeGod,inphilosophicaldiscourse,generallyspeakofthisGod,notthegods,asresponsibleforthecreationandprovidenceoftheuniverse.They,too,however,donotseemtohavedirectlypracticedareligiousculttotheirGod.{{citebook}}:Externallinkin|series=(help) ^Karamanolis,GeorgeE.(2013)."Freewillanddivineprovidence".ThePhilosophyofEarlyChristianity.AncientPhilosophies(1st ed.).NewYorkandLondon:Routledge.p. 151.ISBN 978-1844655670. ^Seneca,Epistles,lxv.2. ^MarcusAurelius,Meditations,iv.21. ^MichaelLapidge,StoicCosmology,in:JohnM.Rist,TheStoics,CambridgeUniversityPress,1978,pp.182–83. ^abcFerguson,Everett.BackgroundsofEarlyChristianity.2003,p.368. ^Tripolitis,A.,ReligionsoftheHellenistic-RomanAge,pp.37–38.Wm.B.EerdmansPublishing. ^JohnSellars,Stoicism,Routledge,2014,pp.84–85:"[Stoics]haveoftenbeenpresentedasthefirstnominalists,rejectingtheexistenceofuniversalconceptsaltogether....ForChrysippustherearenouniversalentities,whethertheybeconceivedassubstantialPlatonicFormsorinsomeothermanner.". ^"Chrysippus|InternetEncyclopediaofPhilosophy". ^Graver,Margaret(2009).StoicismandEmotion.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress.ISBN 978-0226305585.OCLC 430497127. ^"Passion".Merriam-Webster.EncyclopædiaBritannica.Retrieved29January2011. ^Seddon,Keith(2005).Epictetus'HandbookandtheTabletofCebes.NewYork:Routledge.p. 217.ISBN 978-0415324519.OCLC 469313282. ^abDonE.Marietta,(1998),Introductiontoancientphilosophy,pp.153–54.Sharpe ^Zadorojnyi,AlexeiV.(2007)."Cato'ssuicideinPlutarchAVZadorojnyi".TheClassicalQuarterly.57(1):216–30.doi:10.1017/S0009838807000195.S2CID 170834913. ^WilliamBraxtonIrvine,(2009),Aguidetothegoodlife:theancientartofStoicjoy,p.200.OxfordUniversityPress ^Davidson,A.I.(1995)PierreHadotandtheSpiritualPhenomenonofAncientPhilosophy,inPhilosophyasaWayofLife,Hadot,P.OxfordBlackwells,pp.9–10 ^Hadot,P.(1992)LaCitadelleintérieure.IntroductionauxPenséesdeMarcAurèle.Paris,Fayard,pp.106–15 ^Hadot,P.(1987)Exercicesspirituelsetphilosophieantique.Paris,2nded.,p.135. ^MacSuibhne,S.(2009)."'Wrestletobethemanphilosophywishedtomakeyou':MarcusAurelius,reflectivepractitioner".ReflectivePractice.10(4):429–36.doi:10.1080/14623940903138266.S2CID 219711815. ^Robertson,D(2010).ThePhilosophyofCognitive-BehavioralTherapy:StoicismasRationalandCognitivePsychotherapy.London:Karnac.ISBN 978-1855757561. ^abcdefHubbard,ThomasK.(2013).ACompaniontoGreekandRomanSexualities.JohnWiley&Sons.ISBN 978-1118610688. ^abcdefgEllis,J.Edward(2007).PaulandAncientViewsofSexualDesire:Paul'sSexualEthicsin1Thessalonians4,1Corinthians7andRomans1.Bloomsbury.pp. 106–19.ISBN 978-0567446213. ^abcdCrompton,Louis(2009).HomosexualityandCivilization.HarvardUniversityPress.pp. 66–67.ISBN 978-0674030060. ^abcdNeill,James(2011).TheOriginsandRoleofSame-SexRelationsinHumanSocieties.McFarland.pp. 210–13.ISBN 978-0786469260. ^Epictetus,Discourses,ii.5.26 ^Epictetus,Discourses,i.9.1 ^Seneca,MoralletterstoLucilius,Letter47:Onmasterandslave,10,circaAD65. ^"OntheDutiesoftheClergy".www.newadvent.org.Retrieved1March2017. ^Aurelius,Marcus(1964).Meditations.London:PenguinBooks.p. 26.ISBN 978-0140441406. ^abMarcusAurelius(1964).Meditations.London:PenguinBooks.p. 25.ISBN 978-0140441406. ^Kee,HowardandFranklinW.Young,UnderstandingTheNewTestament,EnglewoodCliffs,NewJersey,PrenticeHall,Inc.1958,p.208.ISBN 978-0139365911 ^"Stoicism|Definition,History,&Influence|Britannica".www.britannica.com. ^Agathias.Histories,2.31. ^David,Sedley."Ancientphilosophy".InE.Craig(ed.).RoutledgeEncyclopediaofPhilosophy.Retrieved18October2008. ^MusoniusRufus."LectureXII"OnSexualIndulgence"."MusoniusRufus:TheRomanSocrates(LecturesandFragments),IntroductionandTranslationbyCoraE.Lutz,FromVolumeXoftheYaleClassicalStudies,YaleUniversityPress,1947 ^TheMakingofFornication:Eros,Ethics,andPoliticalReforminGreekPhilosophyandEarlyChristianity.FromUniversityofCaliforniaPress,2003 ^CatechismoftheCatholicChurch(2nd ed.).LibreriaEditriceVaticana.2019.Paragraph2366. Furtherreading[edit] Primarysources[edit] A.A.LongandD.N.Sedley,TheHellenisticPhilosophersCambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1987. Inwood,Brad&GersonLloydP.(eds.)TheStoicsReader:SelectedWritingsandTestimoniaIndianapolis:Hackett2008. Long,GeorgeEnchiridionbyEpictetus,PrometheusBooks,ReprintEdition,January1955. GillC.Epictetus,TheDiscourses,Everyman1995. Irvine,William,AGuidetotheGoodLife:TheAncientArtofStoicJoy(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2008)ISBN 978-0195374612 Hadas,Moses(ed.),EssentialWorksofStoicism,BantamBooks1961. HarvardUniversityPressEpictetusDiscoursesBooks1and2,LoebClassicalLibraryNr.131,June1925. HarvardUniversityPressEpictetusDiscoursesBooks3and4,LoebClassicalLibraryNr.218,June1928. Long,George,DiscoursesofEpictetus,KessingerPublishing,January2004. LuciusAnnaeusSenecatheYounger(transl.RobinCampbell),LettersfromaStoic:EpistulaeMoralesAdLucilium(1969,reprint2004)ISBN 0140442103 MarcusAurelius,Meditations,translatedbyMaxwellStaniforth;ISBN 0140441409,ortranslatedbyGregoryHays;ISBN 0679642609.AlsoAvailableonwikisourcetranslatedbyvarioustranslators Oates,WhitneyJennings,TheStoicandEpicureanPhilosophers,TheCompleteExtantWritingsofEpicurus,Epictetus,LucretiusandMarcusAurelius,RandomHouse,9thprinting1940.[ISBN missing] Studies[edit] Bakalis,Nikolaos,HandbookofGreekPhilosophy:FromThalestotheStoics.AnalysisandFragments,TraffordPublishing,2005,ISBN 1412048435 Becker,LawrenceC.,ANewStoicism(Princeton:PrincetonUniv.Press,1998)ISBN 0691016607 Brennan,Tad,TheStoicLife(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2005;paperback2006) Brooke,Christopher.PhilosophicPride:StoicismandPoliticalThoughtfromLipsiustoRousseau(PrincetonUP,2012)excerpts Hall,Ron,SecundumNaturam(AccordingtoNature).StoicTherapy,LLC,2021. Inwood,Brad(ed.),TheCambridgeCompaniontoTheStoics(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2003) Lachs,John,StoicPragmatism(IndianaUniversityPress,2012)ISBN 0253223768 Long,A.A.,StoicStudies(CambridgeUniversityPress,1996;repr.UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2001)ISBN 0520229746 Robertson,Donald,ThePhilosophyofCognitive-BehavioralTherapy:StoicismasRationalandCognitivePsychotherapy(London:Karnac,2010)ISBN 978-1855757561 Robertson,Donald,HowtoThinkLikeaRomanEmperor:TheStoicPhilosophyofMarcusAurelius.'NewYork:St.Martin'sPress,2019. Sellars,John,Stoicism(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2006)ISBN 1844650537 Stephens,WilliamO.,StoicEthics:EpictetusandHappinessasFreedom(London:Continuum,2007)ISBN 0826496083 Strange,Steven(ed.),Stoicism:TraditionsandTransformations(Cambridge:CambridgeUniv.Press,2004)ISBN 0521827094 Zeller,Eduard;Reichel,OswaldJ.,TheStoics,EpicureansandSceptics,Longmans,Green,andCo.,1892 Externallinks[edit] LibraryresourcesaboutStoicism Onlinebooks Resourcesinyourlibrary Resourcesinotherlibraries Wikiquotehasquotationsrelatedto:Stoicism Listentothisarticle(43minutes) Thisaudiofilewascreatedfromarevisionofthisarticledated30 September 2019 (2019-09-30),anddoesnotreflectsubsequentedits.(Audiohelp ·Morespokenarticles) Baltzly,Dirk."Stoicism".InZalta,EdwardN.(ed.).StanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophy. "Stoicism".InternetEncyclopediaofPhilosophy. "StoicEthics".InternetEncyclopediaofPhilosophy. "StoicPhilosophyofMind".InternetEncyclopediaofPhilosophy. Hicks,RobertDrew(1911)."Stoics" .EncyclopædiaBritannica(11th ed.). TheStoicTherapyeLibrary TheStoicLibrary StoicLogic:TheDialecticfromZenotoChrysippus AnnotatedBibliographyonAncientStoicDialectic "AbibliographyonStoicismbytheStoicFoundation".Archivedfromtheoriginalon23September2012.Retrieved14September2012. BBCRadio4'sInOurTimeprogrammeonStoicism(requiresFlash) AnintroductiontoStoicPhilosophy TheStoicRegistry(formerlyNewStoa):OnlineStoicCommunity ModernStoicism(StoicWeekandStoicon) TheFourStoicVirtues vteStoicismPhilosophersEarly ZenoofCitium Persaeus Aristo Sphaerus Herillus Cleanthes Chrysippus ZenoofTarsus CratesofMallus DiogenesofBabylon Dioscorides Zenodotus DionysiusofCyrene Apollodorus AntipaterofTarsus Middle Panaetius Dardanus Mnesarchus Hecato Posidonius Diodotus Diotimus Geminus AntipaterofTyre AthenodorusCananites Late Seneca Cornutus MusoniusRufus Euphrates Cleomedes Epictetus Hierocles JuniusRusticus MarcusAurelius Chaeremon MarabarSerapion Philosophy Stoicism categories logic passions physics Neostoicism ModernStoicism Concepts Adiaphora Apatheia Ataraxia Ekpyrosis Eudaimonia Katalepsis Kathekon Logos Oikeiôsis Pneuma Prohairesis Sophos WorksEpictetus Discourses Enchiridion MarcusAurelius Meditations Seneca LetterstoLucilius Essays: Anger Benefits Clemency Constancy Happiness Leisure Providence ShortnessofLife Tranquillity Consolations Other Lectures(MusoniusRufus) OnPassions(Chrysippus) Republic(Zeno) Relatedarticles ParadoxaStoicorum StoicorumVeterumFragmenta StoicOpposition Moralintellectualism vteAncientGreekschoolsofphilosophyPre-SocraticIonian EpimenidesofKnossos PherecydesofSyros Diogenes MetrodorusofLampsacus Xenophanes Xeniades TheodorusofCyrene Anacharsis Milesian Thales Anaximander Anaximenes Ephesian Heraclitus Cratylus Antisthenes Atomist Leucippus Democritus Italian Hippo MusaeusofAthens Themistoclea Pythagorean Pythagoras Hippasus Philolaus Archytas Lamiskos Alcmaeon Brontinus Theano Arignote Myia Damo Calliphon Hermotimus MetrodorusofCos Eurytus Eleatic Parmenides Zeno Melissus Pluralist Anaxagoras Archelaus Empedocles Sophist Protagoras Gorgias Prodicus Hippias Antiphon Lycophron Damon Callicles Thrasymachus Euthydemus Dionysodorus Euenus Critias Classical Socrates Xenophon CebesofThebes SimmiasofThebes Cynic Antisthenes Diogenes Diodorus Zoilus Onesicritus Philiscus Crates Hipparchia Metrocles Monimus Cleomenes Bion Sotades Menippus Menedemus Cercidas Teles Meleager Favonius Demetrius DioChrysostom Agathobulus Secundus Demonax PeregrinusProteus Theagenes Oenomaus Pancrates Crescens Heraclius Horus Asclepiades Sallustius Cyrenaic Aristippus AreteofCyrene AristippustheYounger TheodorustheAtheist AntipaterofCyrene AristotleofCyrene HegesiasofCyrene Anniceris DionysiustheRenegade Euhemerus Eretrian PhaedoofElis Menedemus AsclepiadesofPhlius Megarian EuclidofMegara Ichthyas Thrasymachus Eubulides Stilpo Nicarete Pasicles Bryson Dialectical Clinomachus ApolloniusCronus Euphantus Dionysius DiodorusCronus Philo Alexinus Panthoides Peripatetic Aristotle Aristoxenus ClearchusofSoli Dicaearchus EudemusofRhodes Theophrastus StratoofLampsacus LycoofTroas AristoofCeos Critolaus DiodorusofTyre Erymneus AndronicusofRhodes Cratippus AndronicusofRhodes BoethusofSidon AristoclesofMessene Aspasius Adrastus AlexanderofAphrodisias Themistius OlympiodorustheElder Platonic Plato Eudoxus PhilipofOpus Aristonymus Coriscus ErastusofScepsis DemetriusofAmphipolis EuaeonofLampsacus Heraclides PythonofAenus HestiaeusofPerinthus LastheneiaofMantinea TimolausofCyzicus Speusippus AxiotheaofPhlius HeraclidesPonticus MenedemusofPyrrha Xenocrates Crantor Polemon CratesofAthens HellenisticAcademicSkepticMiddle Arcesilaus DioclesofCnidus Lacydes Telecles Evander Hegesinus New Carneades HagnonofTarsus MetrodorusofStratonicea Clitomachus Charmadas AeschinesofNeapolis PhiloofLarissa Cicero DioofAlexandria Epicurean Epicurus Polyaenus Metrodorus Batis Leontion Carneiscus Idomeneus Hermarchus Colotes Themista Leonteus Polystratus DionysiusofLamptrai Basilides Philonides DiogenesofTarsus AlcaeusandPhiliscus Apollodorus DemetriusLacon ZenoofSidon Amafinius Rabirius TitusAlbucius Phaedrus Philodemus Lucretius Patro Catius Siro DiogenesofOenoanda MiddlePlatonic Antiochus PhiloofAlexandria Plutarch JustinMartyr Gaius Albinus Alcinous Apuleius Atticus MaximusofTyre NumeniusofApamea Longinus ClementofAlexandria OrigenthePagan Calcidius Neoplatonist AmmoniusSaccas Plotinus Disciples Origen Amelius Porphyry Iamblichus Sopater EustathiusofCappadocia Sosipatra Aedesius Dexippus Chrysanthius TheodorusofAsine Julian Sallustius MaximusofEphesus EusebiusofMyndus PriscusofEpirus Antoninus GregoryofNyssa Hypatia Augustine Macrobius PlutarchofAthens Hierius Asclepigenia Hierocles Syrianus Hermias Aedesia Proclus AmmoniusHermiae Asclepiodotus Hegias Zenodotus Marinus Agapius Isidore Damascius Simplicius Priscian Neopythagorean NigidiusFigulus ApolloniusofTyana ModeratusofGades Nicomachus Alexicrates Anaxilaus BolusofMendes Cronius Damis NumeniusofApamea SecundustheSilent QuintusSextius Sotion TheonofSmyrna Pyrrhonist Pyrrho Aenesidemus AgrippatheSkeptic Arcesilaus HecataeusofAbdera HeraclidesofTarentum HerodotusofTarsus MenodotusofNicomedia Nausiphanes SextusEmpiricus TheodasofLaodicea TimonofPhlius StoicGreek ZenoofCitium Persaeus AratusofSoli AthenodorusofSoli AristoofChios ApollophanesofAntioch DionysiustheRenegade Sphaerus HerillusofCarthage Cleanthes Eratosthenes HermagorasofAmphipolis Chrysippus Dioscorides Aristocreon ZenoofTarsus Eudromus CratesofMallus DiogenesofBabylon Zenodotus ApollodorusofSeleucia Basilides AntipaterofTarsus ApollodorusofAthens ArchedemusofTarsus PanaetiusofRhodes BoethusofSidon PolemonofAthens MarcusVigellius HeraclidesofTarsus Dardanus Mnesarchus PubliusRutiliusRufus Stilo DionysiusofCyrene QuintusLuciliusBalbus HecatoofRhodes DiotimustheStoic Posidonius Crinis ProclusofMallus DiodotustheStoic GeminusofRhodes AthenodorosCordylion ApolloniusofTyre CatotheYounger AntipaterofTyre Porcia Apollonides JasonofNysa AthenodorosCananites QuintusSextius AriusDidymus Roman Attalus PapiriusFabianus Seneca ThraseaPaetus LuciusAnnaeusCornutus ChaeremonofAlexandria PaconiusAgrippinus PubliusEgnatiusCeler Persius HelvidiusPriscus ArulenusRusticus MusoniusRufus Fannia EuphratestheStoic Cleomedes Epictetus Hierocles FlaviusArrianus Basilides ApolloniusofChalcedon ClaudiusMaximus JuniusRusticus MarcusAurelius vtePhilosophyBranchesTraditional Axiology Aesthetics Ethics Epistemology Logic Metaphysics Ontology Philosophyof... Art Design Music Film Color History Humannature Feminism Language Literature Culture Education Life Religion Cosmology Philosophy Mind Pain Happiness Humor Psychology Perception Action Logic Mathematics Artificialintelligence Computerscience Information Spaceandtime Science Physics Chemistry Biology Geography Environment Technology Engineering Medicine Healthcare Psychiatry Sport Sexuality Socialscience Business Economics Politics Society Law War SchoolsofthoughtByera Ancient Western Medieval Renaissance Earlymodern Modern Contemporary AncientChinese Agriculturalism Confucianism Legalism Logicians Mohism Chinesenaturalism Neotaoism Taoism Yangism Chan Greco-Roman Aristotelianism Atomism Cynicism Cyrenaics Eleatics Eretrianschool Epicureanism Hermeneutics Ionian Ephesian Milesian Megarianschool Neoplatonism Peripatetic Platonism Pluralism Presocratic Pyrrhonism Pythagoreanism Neopythagoreanism Sophistic Stoicism Indian Hindu Samkhya Nyaya Vaisheshika Yoga Mīmāṃsā Ājīvika Ajñana Cārvāka Jain Anekantavada Syādvāda Buddhist Śūnyatā Madhyamaka Yogacara Sautrāntika Svatantrika Persian Mazdakism Mithraism Zoroastrianism Zurvanism MedievalEuropean Christian Augustinianism Scholasticism Thomism Scotism Occamism Renaissancehumanism EastAsian KoreanConfucianism Edoneo-Confucianism Neo-Confucianism Indian Vedanta Acintyabhedaabheda Advaita Bhedabheda Dvaita NimbarkaSampradaya Shuddhadvaita Vishishtadvaita Navya-Nyāya Islamic Averroism Avicennism Illuminationism ʿIlmal-Kalām Sufi Jewish Judeo-Islamic ModernPeople Cartesianism Kantianism Neo Kierkegaardianism Krausism Hegelianism Marxism Newtonianism Nietzscheanism Spinozism 0 Anarchism ClassicalRealism Liberalism Collectivism Conservatism Determinism Dualism Empiricism Existentialism Foundationalism Historicism Holism Humanism Anti- Idealism Absolute British German Objective Subjective Transcendental Individualism Kokugaku Materialism Modernism Monism Naturalism Naturallaw Nihilism NewConfucianism Neo-scholasticism Pragmatism Phenomenology Positivism Reductionism Rationalism Socialcontract Socialism Transcendentalism Utilitarianism ContemporaryAnalytic Appliedethics Analyticfeminism AnalyticalMarxism Communitarianism Consequentialism Criticalrationalism Experimentalphilosophy Falsificationism Foundationalism /Coherentism Internalismandexternalism Logicalpositivism Legalpositivism Normativeethics Meta-ethics Moralrealism Quineannaturalism Ordinarylanguagephilosophy Postanalyticphilosophy Quietism Rawlsian Reformedepistemology Systemics Scientism Scientificrealism Scientificskepticism Transactionalism Contemporaryutilitarianism ViennaCircle Wittgensteinian Continental Criticaltheory Deconstruction Existentialism Feminist FrankfurtSchool NewHistoricism Hermeneutics Neo-Marxism Phenomenology Posthumanism Postmodernism Post-structuralism Socialconstructionism Structuralism WesternMarxism Other KyotoSchool Objectivism Postcritique Russiancosmism more... PositionsAesthetics Formalism Institutionalism Aestheticresponse Ethics Consequentialism Deontology Virtue Freewill Compatibilism Determinism Hard Incompatibilism Hard Libertarianism Metaphysics Atomism Dualism Idealism Monism Naturalism Realism Epistemology Empiricism Fideism Naturalism Particularism Rationalism Skepticism Solipsism Mind Behaviorism Emergentism Eliminativism Epiphenomenalism Functionalism Objectivism Subjectivism Normativity Absolutism Particularism Relativism Nihilism Skepticism Universalism Ontology Action Event Process Reality Anti-realism Conceptualism Idealism Materialism Naturalism Nominalism Physicalism Realism ByregionRelatedlistsMiscellaneousByregionAfrican Bantu Egyptian Ethiopian Eastern Chinese Indian Indonesian Japanese Korean Taiwanese Pakistani Vietnamese MiddleEastern Iranian Jewish Turkish Western American Australian British Scottish Canada Czech Danish Dutch French German Greek Italian Maltese Polish Slovene Spanish Miscellaneous Amerindian Aztec Yugoslav Romanian Russian Lists Outline Index Years Problems Schools Glossary Philosophers Movements Publications Miscellaneous Naturallaw Sage Theoreticalphilosophy /Practicalphilosophy Womeninphilosophy Portal Category vtePhilosophyoflanguageIndexoflanguagearticlesPhilosophers Plato(Cratylus) Gorgias Confucius Xunzi Aristotle Stoics Pyrrhonists Scholasticism IbnRushd IbnKhaldun ThomasHobbes GottfriedWilhelmLeibniz JohannHerder LudwigNoiré WilhelmvonHumboldt FritzMauthner PaulRicœur FerdinanddeSaussure GottlobFrege FranzBoas PaulTillich EdwardSapir LeonardBloomfield Zhuangzi HenriBergson LevVygotsky LudwigWittgenstein PhilosophicalInvestigations TractatusLogico-Philosophicus BertrandRussell RudolfCarnap JacquesDerrida OfGrammatology LimitedInc BenjaminLeeWhorf GustavBergmann J.L.Austin NoamChomsky Hans-GeorgGadamer SaulKripke A.J.Ayer G.E.M.Anscombe JaakkoHintikka MichaelDummett DonaldDavidson RogerGibson PaulGrice GilbertRyle P.F.Strawson WillardVanOrmanQuine HilaryPutnam DavidLewis RobertStalnaker JohnSearle JoxeAzurmendi ScottSoames StephenYablo JohnHawthorne StephenNeale PaulWatzlawick RichardMontague BarbaraPartee Theories Causaltheoryofreference Contrasttheoryofmeaning Contrastivism Conventionalism Cratylism Deconstruction Descriptivism Directreferencetheory Dramatism Dynamicsemantics Expressivism Inquisitivesemantics Linguisticdeterminism Mediatedreferencetheory Nominalism Non-cognitivism Phallogocentrism Relevancetheory Semanticexternalism Semanticholism Situationsemantics Structuralism Suppositiontheory Symbiosism Theologicalnoncognitivism Theoryofdescriptions(Definitedescription) Unilalianism Verificationtheory Concepts Ambiguity Cant Linguisticrelativity Language Truth-bearer Proposition Use–mentiondistinction Concept Categories Set Class Familyresemblance Intension Logicalform Metalanguage Mentalrepresentation Modality(naturallanguage) Presupposition Principleofcompositionality Property Sign Senseandreference Speechact Symbol Sentence Statement more... Relatedarticles Analyticphilosophy Philosophyofinformation Philosophicallogic Linguistics Pragmatics Rhetoric Semantics Formalsemantics Semiotics Category TaskForce Discussion vtePhilosophyofscienceConcepts Analysis Analytic–syntheticdistinction Aprioriandaposteriori Causality Commensurability Consilience Construct Creativesynthesis Demarcationproblem Empiricalevidence Explanatorypower Fact Falsifiability Feministmethod Functionalcontextualism Ignoramusetignorabimus Inductivereasoning Intertheoreticreduction Inquiry Nature Objectivity Observation Paradigm Problemofinduction Scientificlaw Scientificmethod Scientificpluralism Scientificrevolution Scientifictheory Testability Theorychoice Theory-ladenness Underdetermination Unityofscience Metatheoryofscience Coherentism Confirmationholism Constructiveempiricism Constructiverealism Constructivistepistemology Contextualism Conventionalism Deductive-nomologicalmodel Hypothetico-deductivemodel Inductionism Epistemologicalanarchism Evolutionism Fallibilism Foundationalism Instrumentalism Pragmatism Model-dependentrealism Naturalism Physicalism Positivism /Reductionism /Determinism Rationalism /Empiricism Receivedview /Semanticviewoftheories Scientificrealism /Anti-realism Scientificessentialism Scientificformalism Scientificskepticism Scientism Structuralism Uniformitarianism Vitalism Philosophyof Physics thermalandstatistical Motion Chemistry Biology Geography Socialscience Technology Engineering Artificialintelligence Computerscience Information Mind Psychiatry Psychology Perception Spaceandtime Relatedtopics Alchemy Criticismofscience Descriptivescience Epistemology Faithandrationality Hardandsoftscience Historyandphilosophyofscience Historyofscience Historyofevolutionarythought Logic Metaphysics Normativescience Pseudoscience Relationshipbetweenreligionandscience Rhetoricofscience Sciencestudies Sociologyofscientificknowledge Sociologyofscientificignorance PhilosophersofsciencebyeraAncient Plato Aristotle Stoicism Epicureans Epicurus Medieval Averroes Avicenna RogerBacon WilliamofOckham HughofSaintVictor DominicusGundissalinus RobertKilwardby Earlymodern FrancisBacon ThomasHobbes RenéDescartes GalileoGalilei PierreGassendi IsaacNewton DavidHume Latemodern ImmanuelKant FriedrichSchelling WilliamWhewell AugusteComte JohnStuartMill HerbertSpencer WilhelmWundt CharlesSandersPeirce WilhelmWindelband HenriPoincaré PierreDuhem RudolfSteiner KarlPearson Contemporary AlfredNorthWhitehead BertrandRussell AlbertEinstein OttoNeurath C.D.Broad MichaelPolanyi HansReichenbach RudolfCarnap KarlPopper CarlGustavHempel W.V.O.Quine ThomasKuhn ImreLakatos PaulFeyerabend JürgenHabermas IanHacking BasvanFraassen LarryLaudan DanielDennett Category  Philosophyportal  Scienceportal Authoritycontrol:Nationallibraries Spain Israel UnitedStates Japan Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stoicism&oldid=1082450222" Categories:StoicismAncientGreeceAncientRomeHistoryofphilosophyPhilosophyoflifeVirtueVirtueethicsHiddencategories:PagesusingtheEasyTimelineextensionCS1errors:externallinksArticleswithshortdescriptionShortdescriptionisdifferentfromWikidataUsedmydatesfromMay2018GoodarticlesAllarticleswithunsourcedstatementsArticleswithunsourcedstatementsfromJune2017ArticlescontainingAncientGreek(to1453)-languagetextPageswithmissingISBNsArticleswithhAudiomicroformatsSpokenarticlesArticleswithInternetEncyclopediaofPhilosophylinksWikipediaarticlesincorporatingacitationfromthe1911EncyclopaediaBritannicawithWikisourcereferenceArticleswithBNEidentifiersArticleswithJ9UidentifiersArticleswithLCCNidentifiersArticleswithNDLidentifiers Navigationmenu Personaltools NotloggedinTalkContributionsCreateaccountLogin Namespaces ArticleTalk English Views ReadEditViewhistory More Search Navigation MainpageContentsCurrenteventsRandomarticleAboutWikipediaContactusDonate Contribute HelpLearntoeditCommunityportalRecentchangesUploadfile Tools WhatlinkshereRelatedchangesUploadfileSpecialpagesPermanentlinkPageinformationCitethispageWikidataitem Print/export DownloadasPDFPrintableversion Inotherprojects WikimediaCommonsWikiquote Languages AfrikaansAlemannischالعربيةAragonésAsturianuAzərbaycancaবাংলাБеларускаяБългарскиBosanskiBrezhonegCatalàČeštinaDanskDeutschEestiΕλληνικάEspañolEsperantoEuskaraفارسیFrançaisGaeilgeGàidhligGalego한국어Հայերենहिन्दीHrvatskiIdoBahasaIndonesiaInterlinguaÍslenskaItalianoעבריתJawaქართულიҚазақшаКыргызчаLatinaLatviešuLietuviųLimburgsLinguaFrancaNovaLombardMagyarМакедонскиമലയാളംMaltiმარგალურიBahasaMelayuMirandésNederlands日本語NorskbokmålNorsknynorskNovialOccitanOʻzbekcha/ўзбекчаਪੰਜਾਬੀپنجابیPolskiPortuguêsRomânăРусскийSeelterskShqipSimpleEnglishSlovenčinaSlovenščinaSoomaaligaکوردیСрпски/srpskiSrpskohrvatski/српскохрватскиSuomiSvenskaTagalogதமிழ்Татарча/tatarçaతెలుగుไทยTürkçeУкраїнськаاردوTiếngViệt文言Winaray吴语粵語中文 Editlinks