Social comparison theory - Wikipedia

Social comparison theory, initially proposed by social psychologist Leon Festinger in 1954, centers on the belief that there is a drive within individuals ... Socialcomparisontheory FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Theoryinsocialpsychology PartofaseriesonPsychology Outline History Subfields Basictypes Abnormal Behavioral Behavioralgenetics Biological Cognitive/Cognitivism Comparative Cross-cultural Cultural Differential Developmental Evolutionary Experimental Mathematical Neuropsychology Personality Positive Psychodynamic Psychometrics Quantitative Social Appliedpsychology Appliedbehavioranalysis Clinical Community Consumer Counseling Critical Educational Environmental Ergonomics Forensic Health Humanistic Industrialandorganizational Legal Medical Military Music Occupationalhealth Political Psychometrics Religion School Sport Traffic Lists Disciplines Organizations Psychologists Psychotherapies Researchmethods Theories Timeline Topics  Psychologyportalvte Socialcomparisontheory,initiallyproposedbysocialpsychologistLeonFestingerin1954,[1]centersonthebeliefthatthereisadrivewithinindividualstogainaccurateself-evaluations.Thetheoryexplainshowindividualsevaluatetheirownopinionsandabilitiesbycomparingthemselvestoothersinordertoreduceuncertaintyinthesedomains,andlearnhowtodefinetheself. Followingtheinitialtheory,researchbegantofocusonsocialcomparisonasawayofself-enhancement,[2][3]introducingtheconceptsofdownwardandupwardcomparisonsandexpandingthemotivationsofsocialcomparisons.[4]SocialcomparisoncanbetracedbacktothepivotalpaperbyHerbertHiramHyman,whowasanAmericanSociologist,backin1942.Hymanrevealedtheassessmentofone’sownstatusisdependentonthegroupwithwhomonecomparesoneself.[5] Contents 1LeonFestinger 2Initialframework 3Theoreticaladvances 4CompareandContrastself-evaluationtoself-enhancement 4.1Upwardanddownwardsocialcomparisons 4.2Moderatorsofsocialcomparison 4.2.1Highself-esteemandsocialcomparison 4.2.2Lowself-esteemandsocialcomparison 4.2.3Affect/moodanditseffectonsocialcomparison 4.3Competitiveness 4.3.1Socialstatus 4.3.2Proximitytoastandard 4.4Modelsofsocialcomparison 4.4.1Self-evaluationmaintenancemodel 4.4.2Proxymodel 4.4.3Triadicmodel 4.4.4Three-selvesmodel 5Mediainfluence 6Criticisms 7Seealso 8References 9Furtherreading LeonFestinger[edit] LeonFestingerwasanAmericanpsychologistwhodevelopedtheconceptofsocialcomparisontheory.FestingerwasborninNewYorkCityonMay8,1919.Festingerhadaninterestinsciencewhichledhimtopursueacareerinpsychology.Hereceivedhisbachelor'sdegreefromtheCityCollegeandwentontoIowaStateUniversityforhismaster’sdegreeandPh.D.whichhereceivedin1942. Initialframework[edit] Inthetheory,Festingerprovidedninemainhypotheses: First,hestatedthathumanshaveabasicdrivetoevaluatetheiropinionsandabilitiesandthatpeopleevaluatethemselvesthroughobjective,nonsocialmeans(HypothesisI).[1] Second,Festingerstatedthatifobjective,nonsocialmeanswerenotavailable,thatpeopleevaluatetheiropinionsandabilitiesbycomparisontootherpeople(HypothesisII).[1] Next,hehypothesizedthatthetendencytocompareoneselftoanotherpersondecreasesasthedifferencebetweentheiropinionsandabilitiesbecomesmoredivergent.[1]Inotherwords,ifsomeoneismuchdifferentfromyou,youarelesslikelytocompareyourselftothatperson(HypothesisIII). Henexthypothesizedthatthereisaunidirectionaldriveupwardinthecaseofabilities,whichislargelyabsentinopinions.[1]Thisdrivereferstothevaluethatisplacedondoingbetterandbetter.[6](HypothesisIV). Next,Festingerhypothesizesthattherearenon-socialrestraintsthatmakeitdifficultorevenimpossibletochangeone'sabilityandtheserestraintsarelargelyabsentforopinions.[1]Inotherwords,peoplecanchangetheiropinionswhentheywanttobutnomatterhowmotivatedindividualsmaybetoimprovetheirability,theremaybeotherelementsthatmakethisimpossible[6](HypothesisV). Festingergoesontohypothesizethatthecessationofcomparisonwithothersisaccompaniedbyhostilityorderogationtotheextentthatcontinuedcomparisonwiththosepersonsimpliesunpleasantconsequences(HypothesisVI). Next,anyfactorswhichincreasetheimportanceofsomeparticulargroupasacomparisongroupfromsomeparticularopinionorabilitywillincreasethepressuretowarduniformityconcerningthatabilityoropinionwithinthatgroup.Ifdiscrepanciesarisebetweentheevaluatorandcomparisongroupthereisatendencytoreducethedivergencebyeitherattemptingtopersuadeothers,orchangingtheirpersonalviewstoattainuniformity.However,theimportance,relevanceandattractiontoacomparisongroupthataffectstheoriginalmotivationforcomparison,mediatesthepressurestowardsuniformity(HypothesisVII). Hisnexthypothesisstatesthatifpersonswhoareverydivergentfromone'sownopinionorabilityareperceivedasdifferentfromoneselfonattributesconsistentwiththedivergence,thetendencytonarrowtherangeofcomparabilitybecomesstronger(HypothesisVIII). Lastly,Festingerhypothesizedthatwhenthereisarangeofopinionorabilityinagroup,therelativestrengthofthethreemanifestationsofpressurestowarduniformitywillbedifferentforthosewhoareclosetothemodeofthegroupthanforthosewhoaredistantfromthemode.Thoseclosetothemodewillhavestrongertendenciestochangethepositionsofothers,weakertendenciestonarrowtherangeofcomparison,andevenweakertendenciestochangetheirownopinions(HypothesisIX).[1] Theoreticaladvances[edit] Sinceitsinception,theinitialframeworkhasundergoneseveraladvances.Keyamongthesearedevelopmentsinunderstandingthemotivationsthatunderliesocialcomparisons,andtheparticulartypesofsocialcomparisonsthataremade.Motivesthatarerelevanttosocialcomparisonincludeself-enhancement,[2][3]maintenanceofapositiveself-evaluation,[7]componentsofattributionsandvalidation,[8]andtheavoidanceofclosure.[9][10]WhiletherehavebeenchangesinFestinger'soriginalconcept,manyfundamentalaspectsremain,includingtheprevalenceofthetendencytowardssocialcomparisonandthegeneralprocessthatissocialcomparison. CompareandContrastself-evaluationtoself-enhancement[edit] AccordingtoThortonandArrowood,self-evaluationisoneofthefunctionsofsocialcomparison.Thisisoneprocessthatunderlieshowanindividualengagesinsocialcomparison.[11]Eachindividual'sspecificgoalswillinfluencehowtheyengageinsocialcomparison.Forself-evaluation,peopletendtochooseacomparisontargetthatissimilartothemselves.[12]Specifically,theyaremostinterestedinchoosingatargetwhosharessomedistinctivecharacteristicwiththemselves.Theyalsothinkthatknowingthetruthaboutthemselvesissalutary.[13]Researchsuggeststhatmostpeoplebelievethatchoosingasimilartargethelpsensuretheaccuracyoftheself-evaluation.[14]However,individualsdonotalwaysactasunbiasedself-evaluators,andaccurateself-evaluationsmaynotbetheprimarygoalofsocialcomparison.TherehasbeenmanystudiesandtheyallhaveshownthatAmericanwomentendtobedissatisfiedwiththeirlooks,theyeitherratethemselves"tooplain,old,pimply,fat,hairy,tall"andsomuchmore.Womenaremuchmoresensitivethanmenespeciallywithithavingtodowiththeirphysicalappearance.[15] Individualsmayalsoseekself-enhancement,ortoimprovetheirself-esteem.[12]Theymayinterpret,distort,orignoretheinformationgainedbysocialcomparisontoseethemselvesmorepositivelyandfurthertheirself-enhancementgoals.Peoplealsoseekselfenhancementbecauseholdingfavorableillusionsaboutthemselvesisgratifying.Theywillalsochoosetomakeupward(comparingthemselvestosomeonebetteroff)ordownward(comparingthemselvestosomeoneworseoff)comparisons,dependingonwhichstrategywillfurthertheirself-enhancementgoals.Theymayalsoavoidmakingcomparisonsperiod,oravoidmakingcertaintypesofcomparisons.Specifically,whenanindividualbelievesthattheirabilityinaspecificareaislow,theywillavoidmakingupwardsocialcomparisonsinthatarea.Unlikeforself-evaluationgoals,peopleengaginginsocialcomparisonwiththegoalofself-enhancementmaynotseekoutatargetthatissimilartothemselves.Infact,ifatarget'ssimilarityisseenasathreat,duetothetargetoutperformingtheindividualonsomedimension,theindividualmaydownplaythesimilarityofthetargettothemselves.ThisnotiontiescloselytothephenomenainpsychologyintroducedalsobyLeonFestingerhimselfasitrelatestothediminishingofcognitivedissonance.Onedoesnotwanttoperceiveoneselfinawaywhichwoulddownplayone'soriginalbeliefuponwhichone'sself-esteemisbasedandthereforeinordertoreducethecognitivedissonance,oneiswillingtochangethecognitiverepresentationoftheotherpersonwhomonecomparesoneselfto,suchthatone'sownbeliefaboutoneselfremainsintact.Thiseffectivelyleadstothecomparisonofapplestoorangesorpsychologicaldenial. Lateradvancesintheoryledtoself-enhancementbeingoneofthefourself-evaluationmotives:,alongwithself-assessment,self-verification,andself-improvement. Mainarticle:Self-evaluationmotives Mainarticle:Self-enhancement Mainarticle:Self-assessment Mainarticle:Self-verification Mainarticle:Self-improvement Upwardanddownwardsocialcomparisons[edit] Willsintroducedtheconceptofdownwardcomparisonin1981.[3]Downwardsocialcomparisonisadefensivetendencythatisusedasameansofself-evaluation.Whenapersonlookstoanotherindividualorgroupthattheyconsidertobeworseoffthanthemselvesinordertofeelbetterabouttheirselforpersonalsituation,theyaremakingadownwardsocialcomparison.Researchhassuggestedthatsocialcomparisonswithotherswhoarebetterofforsuperior,orupwardcomparisons,canlowerself-regard,[16]whereasdownwardcomparisonscanelevateself-regard.[17]Downwardcomparisontheoryemphasizesthepositiveeffectsofcomparisonsinincreasingone'ssubjectivewell-being.[3]Forexample,ithasbeenfoundthatbreastcancerpatientsmadethemajorityofcomparisonswithpatientslessfortunatethanthemselves.[18]Ashbyfoundsimilarresultsinhisexperimentshowing,downwardcomparisoninpeoplesubjectedtodistressfromaphysicalillnesssuchasheartdiseaseorcancer.Theyalsoseethosewhorecoverfromthesameillness,andthestudyfoundthatpatientstendedtobemoreoptimisticabouttheirownrecovery.[19] Althoughsocialcomparisonresearchhassuggestedthatupwardcomparisonscanlowerself-regard,Collinsindicatesthatthisisnotalwaysthecase.[20]Individualsmakeupwardcomparisons,whetherconsciouslyorsubconsciously,whentheycomparethemselveswithanindividualorcomparisongroupthattheyperceiveassuperiororbetterthanthemselvesinordertoimprovetheirviewsofselfortocreateamorepositiveperceptionoftheirpersonalreality.Upwardsocialcomparisonsaremadetoself-evaluateandself-improveinthehopesthatself-enhancementwillalsooccur.Inanupwardsocialcomparison,peoplewanttobelievethemselvestobepartoftheeliteorsuperior,andmakecomparisonshighlightingthesimilaritiesbetweenthemselvesandthecomparisongroup,unlikeadownwardsocialcomparison,wheresimilaritiesbetweenindividualsorgroupsaredisassociated.[9] Ithasalsobeensuggestedthatupwardcomparisonsmayprovideaninspirationtoimprove,andinonestudyitwasfoundthatwhilebreastcancerpatientsmademoredownwardcomparisons,theyshowedapreferenceforinformationaboutmorefortunateothers.[21] Anotherstudyindicatedthatpeoplewhoweredietingoftenusedupwardsocialcomparisonsbypostingpicturesofthinnerpeopleontheirrefrigerators.[20]Thesepicturesservedasnotonlyareminderofanindividualscurrentweight,butalsoasaninspirationofagoaltobereached.Insimpleterms,downwardsocialcomparisonsaremorelikelytomakeusfeelbetteraboutourselves,whileupwardsocialcomparisonsaremorelikelytomotivateustoachievemoreorreachhigher. Moderatorsofsocialcomparison[edit] AspinwallandTaylorlookedatmood,self-esteem,andthreatasmoderatorsthatdriveindividualstochoosetomakeupwardordownwardsocialcomparisons.[22]Downwardcomparisonsincaseswhereindividualshadexperiencedathreattotheirself-esteemproducedmorefavorableself-evaluations. Highself-esteemandsocialcomparison[edit] AspinwallandTaylorfoundthatupwardsocialcomparisonsweregoodincircumstanceswheretheindividualsmakingthecomparisonshadhighself-esteem,becausethesetypesofcomparisonsprovidedthemwithmoremotivationandhopethandownwardsocialcomparisons.[22]However,iftheseindividualshadexperiencedarecentthreatorsetbacktotheirself-esteem,theyreportedthatupwardcomparisonsresultedinamorenegativeaffectthandownwardcomparisons. Lowself-esteemandsocialcomparison[edit] However,peoplewithlowself-esteemorpeoplewhoareexperiencingsomesortofthreatintheirlife(suchasdoingpoorlyinschool,orsufferingfromanillness)tendtofavordownwardcomparisonsoverupwardcomparisons.Peoplewithlowself-esteemandnegativeaffectimprovetheirmoodbymakingdownwardcomparisons.Theirmooddoesnotimproveasmuchasitwouldiftheyhadhighself-esteem.Evenforpeoplewithlowself-esteem,thesedownwardsocialcomparisonsdoimprovetheirnegativemoodandallowthemtofeelhopeandmotivationfortheirfuture. Affect/moodanditseffectonsocialcomparison[edit] Individualswhohaveanegativemoodimprovetheirmoodbymakingupwardsocialcomparisons,regardlessoftheirlevelofself-esteem.Inaddition,bothindividualswithhighself-esteemandlowself-esteemwhoareinapositivemoodelevatetheirmoodfurtherbymakingupwardcomparisons.However,forthosewhohaverecentlyexperiencedathreattotheirself-esteemorasetbackintheirlife,makingupwardsocialcomparisonsinsteadofdownwardsocialcomparisonsresultsinamorenegativeaffect.Self-esteemandexistenceofathreatorsetbackinanindividual'slifearetwomoderatorsoftheirresponsetoupwardordownwardcomparisons. Competitiveness[edit] Becauseindividualsaredrivenupwardsinthecaseofabilities,socialcomparisonscandrivecompetitionamongpeers.[23]Inthisregard,thepsychologicalsignificanceofacomparisondependsonthesocialstatusofanindividual,andthecontextinwhichtheirabilitiesarebeingevaluated. Socialstatus[edit] Competitivenessresultingfromsocialcomparisonsmaybegreaterinrelationtohighersocialstatusbecauseindividualswithmorestatushavemoretolose.Inonestudy,studentsinaclassroomwerepresentedwithabonuspointprogramwhere,basedonchance,thegradesforsomestudentswouldincreaseandthegradesforotherswouldremainthesame.Despitethefactthatstudentscouldnotlosebythisprogram,higher-statusindividualsweremorelikelytoobjecttotheprogram,andmorelikelytoreportaperceiveddistributiveinjustice.Itwassuggestedthatthiswasacognitivemanifestationofanaversiontodownwardmobility,whichhasmorepsychologicalsignificancewhenanindividualhasmorestatus.[24] Proximitytoastandard[edit] Whenindividualsareevaluatedwheremeaningfulstandardsexist,suchasinanacademicclassroomwherestudentsareranked,thencompetitivenessincreasesasproximitytoastandardofperformanceincreases.Whentheonlymeaningfulstandardisthetop,thenhigh-rankingindividualsaremostcompetitivewiththeirpeers,andindividualsatlowandintermediateranksareequallycompetitive.However,whenbothhighandlowrankingsholdsignificance,thenindividualsathighandlowranksareequallycompetitive,andarebothmorecompetitivethanindividualsatintermediateranks.[25][26] Modelsofsocialcomparison[edit] Severalmodelshavebeenintroducedtosocialcomparison,includingtheself-evaluationmaintenancemodel(SEM),[16]proxymodel,[27]thetriadicmodelandthethree-selvesmodel.[28] Self-evaluationmaintenancemodel[edit] TheSEMmodelproposesthatwemakecomparisonstomaintainorenhanceourself-evaluations,focusingontheantagonisticprocessesofcomparisonandreflection.[16] AbrahamTesserhasconductedresearchonself-evaluationdynamicsthathastakenseveralforms.Aself-evaluationmaintenance(SEM)modelofsocialbehaviorfocusesontheconsequencesofanotherperson'soutstandingperformanceonone'sownself-evaluation.Itsketchesoutsomeconditionsunderwhichtheother'sgoodperformancebolstersself-evaluation,i.e.,"baskinginreflectedglory",andconditionsunderwhichitthreatensself-evaluationthroughacomparisonprocess.[29] Proxymodel[edit] Theproxymodelanticipatesthesuccessofsomethingthatisunfamiliar.Themodelproposesthatifapersonissuccessfulorfamiliarwithatask,thenheorshewouldalsobesuccessfulatanewsimilartask.Theproxyisevaluatedbasedonabilityandisconcernedwiththequestion"CanIdoX?"Aproxy'scomparisonisbasedpreviousattributes.Theopinionofthecomparerandwhethertheproxyexertedmaximumeffortonapreliminarytaskarevariablesinfluencinghisorheropinion.[9] Triadicmodel[edit] TheTriadicModelbuildsontheattributionelementsofsocialcomparison,proposingthatopinionsofsocialcomparisonarebestconsideredintermsof3differentevaluativequestions:preferenceassessment(i.e.,"DoIlikeX?"),beliefassessment(i.e.,"IsXcorrect?"),andpreferenceprediction(i.e.,"WillIlikeX?").IntheTriadicModelthemostmeaningfulcomparisonsarewithapersonwhohasalreadyexperiencedaproxyandexhibitsconsistencyinrelatedattributesorpastpreferences.[9] Three-selvesmodel[edit] Thethree-selvesmodelproposesthatsocialcomparisontheoryisacombinationoftwodifferenttheories.Onetheoryisdevelopedaroundmotivationandthefactorsthatinfluencethetypeofsocialcomparisoninformationpeopleseekfromtheirenvironmentandthesecondisaboutself-evaluationandthefactorsthatinfluencetheeffectsofsocialcomparisonsonthejudgmentsofself.[28]Whiletherehasbeenmuchresearchintheareaofcomparisonmotives,therehasbeenlittleintheareaofcomparativeevaluation.Explainingthattheselfisconceivedasinterrelatedconceptionsaccessibledependinguponcurrentjudgmentcontext[30]andtakingacuefromSocialCognitiveTheory,thismodelexaminestheAssimilationeffectanddistinguishesthreeclassesofworkingSelf-conceptideas:individualselves,possibleselvesandcollectiveselves. Mediainfluence[edit] Themediahasbeenfoundtoplayalargeroleinsocialcomparisons.Researchersexaminingthesocialeffectsofthemediahaveusedsocialcomparisontheoryhavefoundthatinmostcaseswomentendtoengageinupwardsocialcomparisonswithatargetother,whichresultsinmorenegativefeelingsabouttheself.Themajorityofwomenhaveadailyopportunitytomakeupwardcomparisonbymeasuringthemselvesagainstsomeformofsocietalideal.Socialcomparisonshavebecomearelevantmechanismforlearningabouttheappearance-relatedsocialexpectationsamongpeersandforevaluatingtheselfintermsofthosestandards.(Jones,2001,P.647). Althoughmendomakeupwardcomparisons,researchfindsthatmorewomenmakeupwardcomparisonsandarecomparingthemselveswithunrealisticallyhighstandardspresentedinthemedia.[31]Aswomenareshownmoremainstreammediaimagesofpowerful,successfulandthinwomen,theyperceivethe"ideal"tobethenormforsocietalviewsofattractive.Inrecentyears,socialmediaplatformssuchasFacebookandInstagramhavemadethismorewidespread,sincesocialmediamakesiteasiertocompareyourselftothe"ideal".Somewomenhavereportedmakingupwardcomparisonsinapositivemannerforthepurposesofself-motivation,butthemajorityofupwardcomparisonsaremadewhentheindividualisfeelinglesserandthereforeevokeanegativeconnotation. Self-perceivedsimilaritieswithrolemodelsonsocialmediacanalsoaffectself-esteemforbothmenandwomen.Havingmoreself-perceivedsimilaritieswitharolemodelcanhelpincreaseself-esteem,whilehavinglesscandecreaseself-esteem.[32]Socialcomparisonwithpeersonsocialmediacanalsoleadtofeelingsofself-pityorsatisfaction.ThedesireforsocialcomparisoncancauseFoMOandcompulsivecheckingofsocialmediasites. Criticisms[edit] ManycriticismsaroseregardingFestinger'ssimilarityhypothesis.DeutschandKrauss[33]arguedthatpeopleactuallyseekoutdissimilarothersintheircomparisonsmaintainingthatthisisimportantforprovidingvaluableself-knowledge,asdemonstratedinresearch.[34][35]Ambiguityalsocirculatedabouttheimportantdimensionsforsimilarity.GoethalsandDarleyclarifiedtheroleofsimilaritysuggestingthatpeopleprefertocomparethosewhoaresimilaronrelatedattributessuchasopinions,characteristicsorabilitiestoincreaseconfidenceforvaluejudgments,howeverthosedissimilarinrelatedattributesarepreferredwhenvalidatingone'sbeliefs.[8] Seealso[edit] Frogpondeffect Socialprojection References[edit] ^abcdefgFestingerL(1954)."Atheoryofsocialcomparisonprocesses".HumanRelations.7(2):117–140.doi:10.1177/001872675400700202.S2CID 18918768. ^abGruderC.L.(1971)."Determinantsofsocialcomparisonchoices".JournalofExperimentalSocialPsychology.7(5):473–489.doi:10.1016/0022-1031(71)90010-2. ^abcdWillsT.A.(1981)."Downwardcomparisonprinciplesinsocialpsychology".PsychologicalBulletin.90(2):245–271.doi:10.1037/0033-2909.90.2.245. ^Schachter,S.(1959).Thepsychologyofaffiliation:Experimentalstudiesofthesourcesofgregariousness(Vol.1).StanfordUniversityPress. ^Buunk,B.(2006).socialcomparison.InG.Davey,Encyclopaedicdictionaryofpsychology.Routledge.CredoReference:https://go.openathens.net/redirector/palmbeachstate.edu?url=https%3A%2F%2Fsearch.credoreference.com%2Fcontent%2Fentry%2Fhodderdpsyc%2Fsocial_comparison%2F0%3FinstitutionId%3D6086 ^abSuls,J.,Miller,R.(1977)."SocialComparisonProcesses:TheoreticalandEmpiricalPerspectives".HemispherePublishingCorp.,WashingtonD.C.ISBN 0-470-99174-7 ^Tesser,A.;Campbell,J.(1982)."Self-evaluationmaintenanceandtheperceptionoffriendsandstrangers".JournalofPersonality.50(3):261–279.doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1982.tb00750.x. ^abGoethals,G.R.;Darley,J.(1977)."Socialcomparisontheory:Anattributionalapproach".SocialComparisonProcesses:TheoreticalandEmpiricalPerspectives:86–109. ^abcdSuls,J.;Martin,R.;Wheeler,L.(2002)."Socialcomparison:Why,withwhom,andwithwhateffect?".CurrentDirectionsinPsychologicalScience.11(5):159–163.doi:10.1111/1467-8721.00191.S2CID 145587297. ^Kruglanski,A.W.;Mayseless,O.(1990)."Classicandcurrentsocialcomparisonresearch:Expandingtheperspective".PsychologicalBulletin.108(2):195–208.CiteSeerX 10.1.1.336.1436.doi:10.1037/0033-2909.108.2.195. ^Thorton,D.;Arrowood,A.J.(1966)."Self-evaluation,self-enhancement,andthelocusofsocialcomparison".JournalofExperimentalSocialPsychology.5(2):591–605.doi:10.1016/0022-1031(69)90049-3. ^abWood,J.V.(1989)."Theoryandresearchconcerningsocialcomparisonsofpersonalattributes".PsychologicalBulletin.106(2):231–248.CiteSeerX 10.1.1.456.7776.doi:10.1037/0033-2909.106.2.231. ^Sedikides,C.,&Emler,N.(2006).self.InG.Davey,Encyclopaedicdictionaryofpsychology.Routledge.CredoReference:https://go.openathens.net/redirector/palmbeachstate.edu?url=https%3A%2F%2Fsearch.credoreference.com%2Fcontent%2Fentry%2Fhodderdpsyc%2Fself%2F2%3FinstitutionId%3D6086 ^"SelfEvaluationExamplesandTips".www.indeed.com.Retrieved2020-05-30. ^Bodyimage.(2004).InK.J.Carlson,S.A.Eisenstat,&T.D.Ziporyn,Newharvardguidetowomen'shealth,the.HarvardUniversityPress.CredoReference:https://go.openathens.net/redirector/palmbeachstate.edu?url=https%3A%2F%2Fsearch.credoreference.com%2Fcontent%2Fentry%2Fhupwh%2Fbody_image%2F0%3FinstitutionId%3D6086 ^abcTesser,A.;Millar,M.;Moore,J.(1988)."Someaffectiveconsequencesofsocialcomparisonandreflectionprocesses:thepainandpleasureofbeingclose".JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology.54(1):49–61.doi:10.1037/0022-3514.54.1.49.PMID 3346807. ^Gibbons,F.X.(1986)."Socialcomparisonanddepression:Company'seffectonmisery".JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology.51(1):140–148.doi:10.1037/0022-3514.51.1.140.PMID 3735064. ^Wood,J.V.;Taylor,S.E.;Lichtman,R.R.(1985)."Socialcomparisoninadjustmenttobreastcancer".JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology.49(5):1169–1183.doi:10.1037/0022-3514.49.5.1169.PMID 4078672. ^Ashby,T.W.,&Mendoza,D.(2004).Socialcomparisonandsubjectivewell-being.InC.D.Spielberger(Ed.),Encyclopediaofappliedpsychology.ElsevierScience&Technology.CredoReference:https://go.openathens.net/redirector/palmbeachstate.edu?url=https%3A%2F%2Fsearch.credoreference.com%2Fcontent%2Fentry%2Festappliedpsyc%2Fsocial_comparison_and_subjective_well_being%2F0%3FinstitutionId%3D6086 ^abCollins,R.L.(1995)."Forbetterorworse:Theimpactofupwardsocialcomparisononself-evaluations".PsychologicalBulletin.119(1):51–69.doi:10.1037/0033-2909.119.1.51. ^Taylor,S.E.;Lobel,M.(1989)."Socialcomparisonactivityunderthreat:Downwardevaluationandupwardcontacts".PsychologicalReview.96(4):569–575.CiteSeerX 10.1.1.318.5713.doi:10.1037/0033-295X.96.4.569.PMID 2678204. ^abAspinwall,L.G.;Taylor,S.E.(1993)."Effectsofsocialcomparisondirection,threat,andself-esteemonaffect,self-evaluation,andexpectedsuccess".JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology.64(5):708–722.doi:10.1037/0022-3514.64.5.708.PMID 8505703. ^Chen,P.&Garcia,S.M.(manuscript)"YinandYangTheoryofCompetition:SocialComparisonandEvaluationApprehensionReciprocallyDriveCompetitiveMotivation".link. ^BurleighT.J.;MeeganD.V.(2013)."KeepingupwiththeJonesesaffectsperceptionsofdistributivejustice"(PDF).SocialJusticeResearch.26(2):120–131.CiteSeerX 10.1.1.693.335.doi:10.1007/s11211-013-0181-3.S2CID 59150702. ^GarciaS.M.;TorA.(2007)."Rankings,standards,andcompetition:Taskvs.scalecomparisons".OrganizationalBehaviorandHumanDecisionProcesses.102(1):95–108.doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2006.10.004.S2CID 38889697. ^GarciaS.M.;TorA.;GonzalezR.(2006)."Ranksandrivals:atheoryofcompetition".Personality&SocialPsychologyBulletin.32(7):970–82.doi:10.1177/0146167206287640.PMID 16738029.S2CID 12589685. ^WheelerL.;MartinR.;SulsJ.(1997)."Theproxymodelofsocialcomparisonforself-assessmentofability".PersonalityandSocialPsychologyReview.1(1):54–61.doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr0101_4.PMID 15647128.S2CID 38359906. ^abBlanton,H.(2001).Evaluatingtheselfinthecontextofanother:Thethree-selvesmodelofsocialcomparisonassimilationandcontrast.InCognitivesocialpsychology:ThePrincetonsymposiumonthelegacyandfutureofsocialcognition(pp.75-87).Mahwah,NJ:Erlbaum. ^Tesser,A.,SocialPsychologyNetwork;http://tesser.socialpsychology.org/ ^MarkusH.;WurfE.(1987)."Thedynamicself-concept:Asocialpsychologicalperspective".AnnualReviewofPsychology.38(1):299–337.doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.38.1.299. ^StrahanE.J.;WilsonA.E.;CressmanK.E.;BuoteV.M.(2006)."Comparingtoperfection:Howculturalnormsforappearanceaffectsocialcomparisonsandself-image".BodyImage.3(3):211–227.doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2006.07.004.PMID 18089224. ^Wohlford,KathrynE.;Lochman,JohnE.;Barry,TammyD.(2004-04-01)."TheRelationBetweenChosenRoleModelsandtheSelf-EsteemofMenandWomen".SexRoles.50(7–8):575–582.doi:10.1023/B:SERS.0000023076.54504.ca.ISSN 0360-0025.S2CID 145668649. ^Deutsch,M.,&Krauss,R.M.(1965).Theoriesinsocialpsychology(Vol.2).NewYork:BasicBooks. ^GoethalsG.R.;NelsonR.E.(1973)."Similarityintheinfluenceprocess:Thebelief-valuedistinction".JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology.25(1):117–122.doi:10.1037/h0034266. ^Mettee,D.R.,&Smith,G.(1977).Socialcomparisonandinterpersonalattraction:Thecasefordissimilarity.Socialcomparisonprocesses:Theoreticalandempiricalperspectives,69,101. Furtherreading[edit] Miller,K.(2005).Communicationtheories:Perspectives,processes,andcontexts.NewYork:McGrawHill. 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